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<p>556</p><p>Lean Six Sigma</p><p>Black Belt Training</p><p>Control Phase</p><p>Welcome to Control</p><p>Control Phase</p><p>Welcome to Control</p><p>Now that we have completed the Improve Phase we are going to jump into the Control Phase.</p><p>Welcome to Control will give you a brief look at the topics we are going to cover.</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>557</p><p>Welcome to Control</p><p>Overview</p><p>These are the modules</p><p>we will cover in the</p><p>Control Phase as we</p><p>attempt to insure that</p><p>the gains we have</p><p>made with our project</p><p>remain in place..</p><p>We will examine the</p><p>Advanced CapabilityAdvanced Capability</p><p>Advanced Ex perimentsAdvanced Ex periments</p><p>W elcome to ControlW elcome to Control</p><p>We will examine the</p><p>meaning of each of</p><p>these and show you</p><p>how to apply them.</p><p>Defect ControlsDefect Controls</p><p>Lean ControlsLean Controls</p><p>Statistica l Process Control</p><p>(SPC)</p><p>Sta tistica l Process Control</p><p>(SPC)</p><p>Six Sigma Control PlansSix Sigma Control Plans</p><p>(SPC)(SPC)</p><p>W rap Up & Action ItemsW rap Up & Action Items</p><p>DMAIC Roadmap</p><p>Identify Problem Area</p><p>C</p><p>ha</p><p>m</p><p>pi</p><p>on</p><p>/</p><p>Pr</p><p>oc</p><p>es</p><p>s</p><p>O</p><p>w</p><p>ne</p><p>r</p><p>Identify Problem AreaIdentify Problem Area</p><p>C</p><p>ha</p><p>m</p><p>pi</p><p>on</p><p>/</p><p>Pr</p><p>oc</p><p>es</p><p>s</p><p>O</p><p>w</p><p>ne</p><p>r</p><p>Assess Stability, Capability, and Measurement Systems</p><p>Identify and Prioritize All X’s</p><p>Determine Appropriate Project Focus</p><p>Estimate COPQ</p><p>Establish Team</p><p>D</p><p>ef</p><p>in</p><p>e</p><p>M</p><p>ea</p><p>su</p><p>re</p><p>yz</p><p>e</p><p>Assess Stability, Capability, and Measurement Systems</p><p>Identify and Prioritize All X’s</p><p>Determine Appropriate Project Focus</p><p>Estimate COPQ</p><p>Establish Team</p><p>Assess Stability, Capability, and Measurement Systems</p><p>Identify and Prioritize All X’s</p><p>Determine Appropriate Project Focus</p><p>Estimate COPQ</p><p>Establish Team</p><p>D</p><p>ef</p><p>in</p><p>e</p><p>M</p><p>ea</p><p>su</p><p>re</p><p>yz</p><p>e</p><p>Prove/ Disprove Impact X’s Have On Problem</p><p>Identify, Prioritize, Select Solutions Control or Eliminate X’s Causing Problems</p><p>Implement Solutions to Control or Eliminate X’s Causing Problems</p><p>Implement Control Plan to Ensure Problem Doesn’t Return</p><p>A</p><p>na</p><p>ly</p><p>Im</p><p>pr</p><p>ov</p><p>e</p><p>C</p><p>on</p><p>tro</p><p>l</p><p>Prove/ Disprove Impact X’s Have On Problem</p><p>Identify, Prioritize, Select Solutions Control or Eliminate X’s Causing Problems</p><p>Implement Solutions to Control or Eliminate X’s Causing Problems</p><p>Implement Control Plan to Ensure Problem Doesn’t Return</p><p>Prove/ Disprove Impact X’s Have On Problem</p><p>Identify, Prioritize, Select Solutions Control or Eliminate X’s Causing Problems</p><p>Implement Solutions to Control or Eliminate X’s Causing Problems</p><p>Implement Control Plan to Ensure Problem Doesn’t Return</p><p>A</p><p>na</p><p>ly</p><p>Im</p><p>pr</p><p>ov</p><p>e</p><p>C</p><p>on</p><p>tro</p><p>l</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>Verify Financial Impact</p><p>C</p><p>Verify Financial ImpactVerify Financial Impact</p><p>C</p><p>558</p><p>Control Phase Finality with Control Plans</p><p>Welcome to Control</p><p>Improvement Selected</p><p>Develop Training Plan</p><p>Implement Training Plan</p><p>Improvement Selected</p><p>Develop Training Plan</p><p>Implement Training Plan</p><p>Develop Documentation Plan</p><p>Implement Documentation Plan</p><p>Develop Monitoring Plan</p><p>Implement Monitoring Plan</p><p>Develop Documentation Plan</p><p>Implement Documentation Plan</p><p>Develop Monitoring Plan</p><p>Implement Monitoring Plan</p><p>Develop Response Plan</p><p>Implement Response Plan</p><p>Develop Plan to Align Systems and Structures</p><p>Align Systems and Structures</p><p>Develop Response Plan</p><p>Implement Response Plan</p><p>Develop Plan to Align Systems and Structures</p><p>Align Systems and Structures</p><p>Go to Next Project</p><p>g y</p><p>Verify Financial Impact</p><p>Go to Next Project</p><p>g y</p><p>Verify Financial Impact</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>559</p><p>Lean Six Sigma</p><p>Black Belt Training</p><p>Control Phase</p><p>Lean Controls</p><p>Control Phase</p><p>Lean Controls</p><p>Now we will continue in the Control Phase with “Lean Controls”.</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>560</p><p>Lean Controls</p><p>Overview</p><p>You can see in this section of the course we will look at the Vision of Lean, Lean Tools and</p><p>Sustaining Project Success.</p><p>We will examine the meaning of each of these and show you how to apply them.</p><p>Ad d E i t</p><p>W elcome to ControlW elcome to Control</p><p>Lean Tool HighlightsLean Tool Highlights</p><p>Project Sustained SuccessProject Sustained Success</p><p>Vision of Lean Supporting Six SigmaVision of Lean Supporting Six Sigma</p><p>Defect ControlsDefect Controls</p><p>Lean ControlsLean Controls</p><p>Advanced CapabilityAdvanced Capability</p><p>Advanced Ex perimentsAdvanced Ex periments</p><p>Six Sigma Control Pla nsSix Sigma Control Pla ns</p><p>Sta tistica l Process Control</p><p>(SPC)</p><p>Sta tistica l Process Control</p><p>(SPC)</p><p>W rap Up & Action ItemsW rap Up & Action Items</p><p>Lean Controls</p><p>You’ve begun the process of sustaining your project after finding the “vital few” X’s to your project.</p><p>In the last module with Advanced Process Capability, we discussed removing some of the Special</p><p>Causes causing spread from outliers in the process performance.</p><p>This module gives more tools from the Lean toolbox to stabilize your process.</p><p>Belts, after some practice, often consider this module’s set of tools a way to improve some</p><p>processes that are totally “out of control” or of such poor Process Capability before applying the Six</p><p>Sigma methodology.</p><p>The tools we are going to review within this module can be used to help control a process. They canThe tools we are going to review within this module can be used to help control a process. They can</p><p>be utilized at any time in an improvement effort not just control. These Lean concepts can be applied</p><p>to help reduce variation, effect outliers or clean up a process before, during or at the conclusion of a</p><p>project.</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>561</p><p>The Vision of Lean Supporting Your Project</p><p>Remember the goal is to achieve and the SUSTAIN our improvements We discussed 5S in the</p><p>Lean Controls</p><p>Remember, the goal is to achieve and the SUSTAIN our improvements. We discussed 5S in the</p><p>Define Phase but we are going to review it with a twist here in the Control Phase.</p><p>W e cannot susta in</p><p>Kanban w ithout</p><p>Ka izen.</p><p>The Continuous GoalThe Continuous Goal……</p><p>Susta ining ResultsSusta ining Results</p><p>Standardized W orkStandardized W ork</p><p>Ka izenKaizen</p><p>KanbanKanban</p><p>W e cannot susta in</p><p>Standardized W ork w ithout a</p><p>Visua l Factory.</p><p>W e cannot susta in Ka izen</p><p>(Six Sigma) w ithout</p><p>Standardized W ork .</p><p>Visual FactoryVisua l Factory</p><p>W e cannot susta in a</p><p>visua l factory w ithout 5S.</p><p>Lean tools add discipline required to further susta in ga ins</p><p>rea lized w ith Six Sigma Belt Projects.</p><p>What is Waste (MUDA)?</p><p>The first step toward waste elimination is waste identification which you did originally with your Project</p><p>Charter and measured with your primary metric even if you didn’t use the term waste. All Belt projects</p><p>focus efforts into one (or more) of these seven areas.</p><p>W aste is often the root of any Six Sigma project. The 7 basic</p><p>elements of w aste (muda in Japanese) include:</p><p>– M uda of Correction</p><p>– M uda of Overproduction</p><p>– M uda of Processing</p><p>M d f C– M uda of Conveyance</p><p>– M uda of Inventory</p><p>– M uda of M otion</p><p>– M uda of W aiting</p><p>The specifics of the M UDA w ere discussed in the Define Phase:</p><p>Get that garbage outta here!</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>– The reduction of M UDA can reduce your outliers and help</p><p>w ith defect prevention. Outliers because of differing w aste</p><p>among procedures, machines, etc.</p><p>562</p><p>The Goal</p><p>Remember that any project</p><p>Lean Controls</p><p>Don’t forget the goal Susta ining your Project w hich eliminates</p><p>y p j</p><p>needs to be sustained. Muda</p><p>(pronounced like mooo dah)</p><p>are wastes than can reappear</p><p>if the following Lean tools are</p><p>not used. The goal is to have</p><p>your Belts move onto other</p><p>projects and not be used as</p><p>firefighters</p><p>Don’t forget the goa l -- Susta ining your Project w hich eliminates</p><p>M UDA!</p><p>W ith this in mind, w e w ill introduce and review some of the Lean</p><p>tools used to susta in your project success.</p><p>firefighters.</p><p>The term “5S” derives from the</p><p>Japanese words for five practices</p><p>leading to a clean</p><p>control”.</p><p>SPC gives an ongoing look at the Process Capability. It is not a capability measurement but it is a visual</p><p>indication of the continued Process Capability of your processindication of the continued Process Capability of your process.</p><p>This is a special cause!!</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>595</p><p>Elements of Control Charts</p><p>Statistical Process Control</p><p>Developed by Dr W alter A. Shew hart of Bell Laboratories from 1924</p><p>Graphica l and visua l plot of changes in the data over time</p><p>– This is necessary for visua l management of your process.</p><p>Control Charts w ere designed as a methodology for indica ting change in</p><p>performance, either varia tion or mean/ median.</p><p>Charts have a centra l line and control limits to detect specia l cause</p><p>vi</p><p>du</p><p>al</p><p>V</p><p>al</p><p>ue</p><p>60</p><p>50</p><p>40</p><p>30</p><p>_</p><p>X=29.06</p><p>UCL=55.24</p><p>1</p><p>Control Chart of Recycle</p><p>Charts have a centra l line and control limits to detect specia l cause</p><p>varia tion.</p><p>Process Center</p><p>( ll th )</p><p>Special Cause</p><p>Variation Detected</p><p>Control Charts were first developed by Dr Shewhart in the early 20th century in the U S Control</p><p>Observation</p><p>In</p><p>di</p><p>v</p><p>28252219161310741</p><p>20</p><p>10</p><p>0</p><p>LCL=2.87</p><p>(usually the mean)</p><p>Control Limits</p><p>Control Charts were first developed by Dr. Shewhart in the early 20th century in the U.S. Control</p><p>Charts are a graphical and visual plot of a process and is charted over time like a Time Series</p><p>Chart. From a visual management aspect, a Time Plot is more powerful than knowledge of the last</p><p>measurement. These charts are meant to indicate change in a process. All SPC charts have a</p><p>Central Line and Control Limits to aid in Special Cause variation.</p><p>Notice, again, we never discussed showing or considering specifications. We are advising you to</p><p>never have specification limits on a Control Chart because of the confusion often generated.</p><p>R b t t t l d i t i th i th l i d b dRemember we want to control and maintain the process in the newly improved process based on</p><p>the recently improved past. These Control Charts and their limits are the Voice of the Process not</p><p>the Voice of the Customer which are the specification limits.</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>596</p><p>Understanding the Power of SPC</p><p>Statistical Process Control</p><p>C t l Ch t i di t h i “ t f t l” hibiti i lControl Charts indica te w hen a process is “out of control” or ex hibiting specia l cause</p><p>varia tion but N OT w hy!</p><p>SPC charts incorporate upper and low er control limits.</p><p>– The limits are typica lly +/ - 3 from the centerline.</p><p>– These limits represent 99 .73% of natura l variability for normal distributions.</p><p>SPC charts a llow w orkers and supervision to mainta in improved process performance</p><p>from Six Sigma projects.</p><p>Use of SPC charts can be applied w ith a ll processes.</p><p>– Services, manufacturing, and reta il a re just a few industries w ith SPC</p><p>applications.</p><p>– Caution must be taken w ith use of SPC for non-normal processes.</p><p>Control limits describe the process variability and are unrela ted to customerControl limits describe the process variability and are unrela ted to customer</p><p>specifications. (Voice of the Process instead of Voice of the Customer)</p><p>– An undesirable situa tion is having control limits w ider than customer</p><p>specification limits. This w ill ex ist for poorly performing processes w ith a Cp</p><p>less than 1 .0</p><p>M any SPC charts ex ist and selection must be appropria te for effectiveness.</p><p>The Control Chart Cookbook</p><p>Genera l Steps for Constructing Control Charts</p><p>1. Select characteristic (critical “X” or CTQ) to be charted.</p><p>2 Determine the purpose of the chart2. Determine the purpose of the chart.</p><p>3. Select data-collection points.</p><p>4. Establish the basis for sub-grouping (only for Y’s).</p><p>5. Select the type of Control Chart.</p><p>6. Determine the measurement method/ criteria.</p><p>7 Establish the sampling interval/ frequency7. Establish the sampling interval/ frequency.</p><p>8. Determine the sample size.</p><p>9. Establish the basis of calculating the control limits.</p><p>10. Set up the forms or software for charting data.</p><p>11. Set up the forms or software for collecting data.</p><p>12 Prepare written instructions for all phases</p><p>Stirred or</p><p>Shaken?</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>12. Prepare written instructions for all phases.</p><p>13. Conduct the necessary training.</p><p>597</p><p>Focus of Six Sigma and the Use of SPC</p><p>Thi t h ld b f ili</p><p>Statistical Process Control</p><p>This concept should be very familiar</p><p>to you by now. If we understand the</p><p>variation caused by the X’s, then we</p><p>should be monitoring with SPC the</p><p>X’s first.</p><p>By this time in the methodology you</p><p>should clearly understand the</p><p>To get results, should we focus our behavior on the Y or X?</p><p>Y</p><p>Dependent</p><p>Output</p><p>X1 . . . XN</p><p>Independent</p><p>Input</p><p>Y=F(x )</p><p>y</p><p>concept of Y=f(x). Using SPC we</p><p>are attempting to control the Critical</p><p>X’s in order to control the Y.</p><p>Effect</p><p>Symptom</p><p>Monitor</p><p>Cause</p><p>Problem</p><p>Control</p><p>If we find the “vital few” X’s, first consider using SPC</p><p>on the X’s to achieve a desired Y?</p><p>Control Chart Anatomy</p><p>Statistical Process Control (SPC)</p><p>involves the use of statistical</p><p>techniques, to interpret data, to control</p><p>the variation in processes. SPC is used</p><p>primarily to act on out of control</p><p>Specia l Cause</p><p>Varia tion</p><p>Process is</p><p>“Out of</p><p>Control”</p><p>Run chart of</p><p>da ta points</p><p>Upper Control</p><p>Limit</p><p>Specia l Cause</p><p>Varia tion</p><p>Process is</p><p>“Out of</p><p>Control”</p><p>Run chart of</p><p>da ta points</p><p>Upper Control</p><p>Limit p y</p><p>processes, but it is also used to monitor</p><p>the consistency of processes producing</p><p>products and services.</p><p>A primary SPC tool is the Control Chart</p><p>- a graphical representation for specific</p><p>quantitative measurements of a process</p><p>input or output In the Control Chart</p><p>Common</p><p>Cause</p><p>Varia tion</p><p>Process is “ In</p><p>Control”</p><p>Specia l Cause</p><p>Varia tion</p><p>Process is</p><p>Low er Control</p><p>Limit</p><p>M ean</p><p>+/-</p><p>3 sigm</p><p>a</p><p>Common</p><p>Cause</p><p>Varia tion</p><p>Process is “ In</p><p>Control”</p><p>Common</p><p>Cause</p><p>Varia tion</p><p>Process is “ In</p><p>Control”</p><p>Specia l Cause</p><p>Varia tion</p><p>Process is</p><p>Low er Control</p><p>Limit</p><p>M ean</p><p>+/-</p><p>3 sigm</p><p>a</p><p>input or output. In the Control Chart,</p><p>these quantitative measurements are</p><p>compared to decision rules calculated</p><p>based on probabilities from the actual measurement of process performance.</p><p>The comparison between the decision rules and the performance data detects any unusual variation</p><p>in the process that could indicate a problem with the process. Several different descriptive statistics</p><p>can be used in Control Charts. In addition, there are several different types of Control Charts that can</p><p>t t f diff t h h i kl j i hift i d t t d</p><p>Process is</p><p>“Out of</p><p>Control”</p><p>Process Sequence/ Time Scale</p><p>Process is</p><p>“Out of</p><p>Control”</p><p>Process Sequence/ Time Scale</p><p>test for different causes, such as how quickly major vs. minor shifts in process averages are detected.</p><p>Control Charts are Time Series Charts of all the data points with one addition. The Standard</p><p>Deviation for the data is calculated for the data and two additional lines are added to the chart. These</p><p>lines are placed +/- 3 Standard Deviations away from the Mean and are called the Upper Control</p><p>Limit (UCL) and the Lower Control Limit (LCL). Now the chart has three zones: (1) The zone between</p><p>the UCL and the LCL which called the zone of Common Cause variation, (2) The zone above the</p><p>UCL which a zone of Special Cause variation and (3) another zone of Special Cause variation below</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>the LCL.</p><p>Control Charts graphically highlight data points that do not fit the normal level of expected variation.</p><p>This is mathematically defined as being more than +/- 3 Standard Deviations from the Mean. It’s all</p><p>based off probabilities. We will now demonstrate how this is determined.</p><p>598</p><p>Control and Out of Control</p><p>Statistical Process Control</p><p>Outlier</p><p>3</p><p>2</p><p>3</p><p>2</p><p>68%</p><p>95%</p><p>99.7%</p><p>1</p><p>-1</p><p>-2</p><p>-3</p><p>68%</p><p>95%</p><p>99.7%</p><p>1</p><p>-1</p><p>-2</p><p>-3</p><p>Control Charts provide you with two basic</p><p>functions; one is to provide time based information on the</p><p>performance of the process which makes it possible to track events affecting the process and the</p><p>Outlier</p><p>second is to alert you when Special Cause variation occurs. Control Charts graphically highlight data</p><p>points that do not fit the normal level of variation expected. It is standard that the Common Cause</p><p>variation level is defined as +/- 3 Standard Deviations from the Mean. This is also know as the UCL and</p><p>LCL respectively.</p><p>Recall the “area under the curve” discussion in the lesson on Basic Statistics, remembering that +/- one</p><p>Standard Deviation represented 68% of the distribution, +/- 2 was 95% and +/- 3 was 99.7%. You also</p><p>learned from a probability perspective that you would expect the output of a process would have a p y p p y p p p</p><p>99.7% chance of being between +/- 3 Standard Deviations. You also learned that sum of all probability</p><p>must equal 100%. There is only a 0.3% chance (100% - 99.7%) that a data point be beyond +/- 3</p><p>Standard Deviations. In fact, since we are talking about two zones; one zone above the + 3 Standard</p><p>Deviations and one below it. We have to split 0.3% in two, meaning that there is only a 0.15% chance of</p><p>being in one of the zones.</p><p>There is only a .0015 (.15%) probability that a data point will either be above or below the UCL or LCL.</p><p>That is a very small probability as compared to 997 (99 75%) probability the data point will be betweenThat is a very small probability as compared to .997 (99.75%) probability the data point will be between</p><p>the UCL and the LCL. What this means is there must have been something special happen to cause a</p><p>data point to be that far from the Mean, like a change in vendor, a mistake, etc. This is why the term the</p><p>term Special Cause or assignable cause variation applies. The probability that a data point was this far</p><p>from the rest of the population is so low that something special or assignable happened. Outliers are</p><p>just that, they have a low probability of occurring, meaning we have lost control of our process. This</p><p>simple, quantitative approach using probability is the essence of all Control Charts.</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>599</p><p>Size of Subgroups</p><p>Statistical Process Control</p><p>Typical subgroup sizes are 3-12 for variable data:</p><p>– If difficulty of gathering sample or expense of testing exists, the size, n, is</p><p>smaller</p><p>– 3, 5, and 10 are the most common size of subgroups because of ease of</p><p>calculations when SPC is done without computers.</p><p>Size of subgroups aid in detection of shifts of mean indicating special cause</p><p>exists. The larger the subgroup size, the greater chance of detecting a special</p><p>cause. Subgroup size for Attribute Data is often 50 – 200.</p><p>Lot 1</p><p>Lot 2</p><p>Lot 3</p><p>Lot 4</p><p>Lot 5</p><p>Short-term studies</p><p>Lot 1</p><p>Lot 2</p><p>Lot 3</p><p>Lot 4</p><p>Lot 5</p><p>Short-term studies</p><p>The Impact of Variation</p><p>Long-term studyLong-term study</p><p>Remember the Control</p><p>Limits are based on your</p><p>PAST data and depending</p><p>on what sources of</p><p>variation you have</p><p>included in your</p><p>subgroups, the Control</p><p>Limits which detect the</p><p>- Natural Process Variation</p><p>as defined by subgroup</p><p>selection</p><p>- Natural Process Variation</p><p>- Different Operators</p><p>Sources of</p><p>Varia tion</p><p>Sources of</p><p>Varia tion</p><p>Sources of</p><p>Varia tion</p><p>- Natural Process Variation</p><p>- Different Operators</p><p>- Supplier Source</p><p>- Natural Process Variation</p><p>as defined by subgroup</p><p>selection</p><p>- Natural Process Variation</p><p>- Different Operators</p><p>Sources of</p><p>Varia tion</p><p>Sources of</p><p>Varia tion</p><p>Sources of</p><p>Varia tion</p><p>- Natural Process Variation</p><p>- Different Operators</p><p>- Supplier Source</p><p>-UCLLimits which detect the</p><p>Special Cause variation</p><p>will be affected. You really</p><p>want to have subgroups</p><p>with only Common Cause</p><p>variation so if other</p><p>sources of variation are</p><p>detected, the sources will</p><p>And, of course, if tw o additiona l</p><p>sources of varia tion arrive, w e</p><p>w ill detect that, too!</p><p>First, select the spread</p><p>that w e w ill declare as</p><p>the “N atura l Process</p><p>Variation” , so tha t</p><p>w henever any point</p><p>lands outside these</p><p>“control limits” , an</p><p>a larm w ill sound</p><p>So, w hen a second</p><p>source of varia tion</p><p>appears, w e w ill</p><p>know !</p><p>-LCL</p><p>be easily found instead of</p><p>buried within your</p><p>definition of subgroups.</p><p>a larm w ill sound know !</p><p>If you base your limits on a ll three sources of varia tion, w hat w ill sound the a larm?</p><p>Let’s consider if you were tracking delivery times for quotes on new business with an SPC chart. If</p><p>you decided to not include averaging across product categories, you might find product categories</p><p>are assignable causes but you might not find them as Special Causes since you’ve included them</p><p>in the subgroups as part of your rationalization</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>in the subgroups as part of your rationalization.</p><p>You really want to have subgroups with only Common Cause variation so if other sources of</p><p>variation are detected, the sources will be easily found instead of buried within your definition of</p><p>subgroups.</p><p>600</p><p>Frequency of Sampling</p><p>Statistical Process Control</p><p>Sampling Frequency is a balance between cost of sampling and testing versus cost of not detectingSampling Frequency is a balance between cost of sampling and testing versus cost of not detecting</p><p>shifts in mean or variation.</p><p>Process knowledge is an input to frequency of samples after the subgroup size has been decided.</p><p>- If a process shifts but cannot be detected because of too infrequent sampling, the</p><p>customer suffers</p><p>- If choice is given of large subgroup samples infrequently or smaller subgroups</p><p>more frequently, most choose to get information more frequently.</p><p>- In some processes, with automated sampling and testing frequent sampling is</p><p>easy.</p><p>If undecided as to sample frequency, sample more frequently to confirm detection of process shifts</p><p>and reduce frequency if process variation is still detectable.</p><p>A rule of thumb also states “sample a process at least 10X more frequent than the frequency of ‘out of</p><p>control’ conditions”.</p><p>Sometimes it can be a struggle how often to sample your process when monitoring results. Unless the</p><p>measurement is automated, inexpensive and recorded with computers and able to be charted with</p><p>SPC software without operator involvement, then frequency of sampling is an issue.</p><p>Let’s reemphasize some points. First, you do NOT want to under sample and not have the ability to</p><p>find Special Cause variation easily. Second, do not be afraid to sample more frequently and then</p><p>reduce the frequency if it is clear Special Causes are found frequently. q y p q y</p><p>Output</p><p>Sampling too little w ill not a llow for sufficient detection of shifts</p><p>in the process because of specia l causes.</p><p>7.5</p><p>UCL=7.385</p><p>I Chart of Sample_3</p><p>All possible samples</p><p>5</p><p>5.5</p><p>6</p><p>6.5</p><p>7</p><p>7.5</p><p>1 7 13 19 25 31 37</p><p>Observation</p><p>In</p><p>di</p><p>vi</p><p>du</p><p>al</p><p>V</p><p>al</p><p>ue</p><p>13121110987654321</p><p>7.0</p><p>6.5</p><p>6.0</p><p>5.5</p><p>5.0</p><p>_</p><p>X=6.1</p><p>LCL=4.815</p><p>8</p><p>UCL=8.168</p><p>I Chart of Sample_6</p><p>6.6 UCL=6.559</p><p>I Chart of Sample_12</p><p>All possible samples</p><p>Sample every half hour</p><p>Observation</p><p>In</p><p>di</p><p>vi</p><p>du</p><p>al</p><p>V</p><p>al</p><p>ue</p><p>7654321</p><p>8</p><p>7</p><p>6</p><p>5</p><p>4</p><p>_</p><p>X=6.129</p><p>LCL=4.090</p><p>Observation</p><p>In</p><p>di</p><p>vi</p><p>du</p><p>al</p><p>V</p><p>al</p><p>ue</p><p>4321</p><p>6.4</p><p>6.2</p><p>6.0</p><p>5.8</p><p>5.6</p><p>5.4</p><p>5.2</p><p>5.0</p><p>_</p><p>X=5.85</p><p>LCL=5.141Sample every hour Sample 4x/shift</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>601</p><p>SPC Selection Process</p><p>Statistical Process Control</p><p>Choose Appropria te</p><p>The Control Charts</p><p>Choose Appropria te</p><p>Control Chart</p><p>type</p><p>of data</p><p>type of</p><p>attribute</p><p>data</p><p>subgroup</p><p>size</p><p>ATTRIBUTE CONTINUOUS</p><p>DEFECTS DEFECTIVES</p><p>you choose to use will</p><p>always be based first</p><p>on the type of data</p><p>you have and then on</p><p>the objective of the</p><p>Control Chart. The</p><p>first selection criteria</p><p>will be whether you</p><p>I – MR</p><p>Chart</p><p>X – R</p><p>Chart</p><p>X – R</p><p>Chart</p><p>X – S</p><p>Chart</p><p>X – S</p><p>Chart</p><p>C Chart U Chart NP</p><p>Chart P Chart</p><p>type</p><p>of defect type of</p><p>subgroups</p><p>VARIABLECONSTANT CONSTANT VARIABLE</p><p>1 2-5 10+</p><p>Number of Incidences</p><p>Number of Proportion</p><p>Individuals</p><p>& Moving</p><p>Range</p><p>Mean &</p><p>Range</p><p>Mean &</p><p>Std. Dev.</p><p>SPECIAL CASES</p><p>Sample sizewill be whether you</p><p>have Attribute or</p><p>Continuous Data.</p><p>Continuous SPC</p><p>refers to Control</p><p>Charts that display</p><p>process input or</p><p>have meaning. When these Control Charts are used to control the Critical X input characteristic it is</p><p>called Statistical Process Control (SPC). These charts can also be used to monitor the CTQ’s, the</p><p>important process outputs. This is referred to as Statistical Process Monitoring (SPM).</p><p>CumSum</p><p>Chart</p><p>EWMA</p><p>Chart</p><p>Incidences per Unit Defectives Defectives</p><p>Cumulative</p><p>Sum</p><p>Exponentially</p><p>Weighted Moving</p><p>Average</p><p>output characteristics</p><p>based on Continuous</p><p>Data - data where</p><p>decimal subdivisions</p><p>There are two categories of Control Charts for Continuous Data: charts for controlling the process</p><p>average and charts for controlling the process variation. Generally, the two categories are combined.</p><p>The principal types of Control Charts used in Six Sigma are: charts for Individual Values and Moving</p><p>Ranges (I-MR), charts for Averages and Ranges (XBar-R), charts for Averages and Standard</p><p>Deviations (XBar-S) and Exponentially Weighted Moving Average charts (EWMA).</p><p>Although it is preferable to monitor and control products, services and supporting processes with</p><p>Continuous Data there will be times when Continuous Data is not available or there is a need toContinuous Data, there will be times when Continuous Data is not available or there is a need to</p><p>measure and control processes with higher level metrics, such as defects per unit. There are many</p><p>examples where process measurements are in the form of Attribute Data. Fortunately, there are</p><p>control tools that can be used to monitor these characteristics and to control the critical process</p><p>inputs and outputs that are measured with Attribute Data.</p><p>Attribute Data, also called discrete data, reflects only one of two conditions: conforming or non-</p><p>conforming, pass or fail, go or no go. Four principal types of Control Charts are used to monitor and</p><p>t l h t i ti d i Att ib t D t th ( ti f i ) ( bcontrol characteristics measured in Attribute Data: the p (proportion nonconforming), np (number</p><p>nonconforming), c (number of non-conformities), and u (non-conformities per unit) charts. Four</p><p>principle types of Control Charts are used to monitor and control characteristics measured in</p><p>Discrete Data: the p (proportion nonconforming), np (number nonconforming), c (number of non-</p><p>conformities), and u (non-conformities per unit) charts. These charts are an aid to decision making.</p><p>With Control Limits, they help us filter the probable noise by adequately reflecting the Voice of the</p><p>Process.</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>A defective is defined as an entire unit that fails to meet acceptance criteria, regardless of the</p><p>number of defects in the unit. A defect is defined as the failure to meet any one of the many</p><p>acceptance criteria. Any unit with at least one defect may be considered to be a defective.</p><p>Sometimes more than one defect is allowed, up to some maximum number, before the product is</p><p>considered to be defective.</p><p>602</p><p>Understanding Variable Control Chart Selection</p><p>Statistical Process Control</p><p>T f Ch t W h d d it?Type of Chart W hen do you need it?</p><p>u Production is higher volume; a llow s process mean and variability</p><p>to be view ed and assessed together; more sampling than w ith</p><p>Individuals chart (I) and M oving Range charts (M R) but w hen</p><p>subgroups are desired. Outliers can cause issues w ith Range (R)</p><p>charts so Standard Devia tion charts (S) used instead if concerned.</p><p>P d ti i l l l ti t b ild d t i l</p><p>Average &</p><p>Range or S</p><p>(XBar and R or</p><p>XBar and S)</p><p>I di id l d</p><p>M ost common</p><p>u Production is low volume or cycle time to build product is long or</p><p>homogeneous sample represents entire product (batch etc.);</p><p>sampling and testing is costly so subgroups are not desired.</p><p>Control limits are w ider than XBar charts. Used for SPC on most</p><p>inputs.</p><p>u Set-up is critica l, or cost of setup scrap is high. Use for outputs</p><p>Individua l and</p><p>M oving Range</p><p>Pre-Control</p><p>u Small shift needs to be detected, often because of autocorrela tion</p><p>of the output results. Used only for individuals or averages of</p><p>Outputs. Infrequently used because of ca lculation complex ity.</p><p>u Same reasons as EW M A (Ex ponentia lly W eighted M oving Range)</p><p>ex cept the past data is as important as present data .</p><p>Ex ponentia lly</p><p>W eighted</p><p>M oving Average</p><p>Cumulative Sum</p><p>Less Common</p><p>Understanding Attribute Control Chart Selection</p><p>W hen do you need it?Type of Chart</p><p>u N eed to track the fraction of defective</p><p>units; sample size is variable and usually > 50</p><p>u W hen you w ant to track the number of defective</p><p>units per subgroup; sample size is usually</p><p>constant and usua lly > 50</p><p>u W hen o ant to track the n mber of defects</p><p>P</p><p>nP</p><p>C u W hen you w ant to track the number of defects</p><p>per subgroup of units produced; sample size is</p><p>constant</p><p>u W hen you w ant to track the number of</p><p>defects per unit; sample size is variable</p><p>C</p><p>U</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>The P Chart is the most common type of chart in understanding Attribute Control Charts.</p><p>603</p><p>Detection of Assignable Causes or Patterns</p><p>Statistical Process Control</p><p>Control Charts indicate specia l causes being either assignable causes or patterns.</p><p>The follow ing rules are applicable for both variable and Attribute Data to detect</p><p>specia l causes.</p><p>These four rules are the only applicable tests for Range (R), M oving Range (M R), or</p><p>Standard Deviation (S) charts.</p><p>– One point more than 3 Standard Devia tions from the center line.</p><p>– 6 points in a row a ll either increasing or a ll decreasing.</p><p>– 14 points in a row a lternating up and dow n.</p><p>– 9 points in a row on the same side of the center line.</p><p>These remaining four rules are only for variable data to detect specia l causes.</p><p>– 2 out of 3 points grea ter than 2 Standard Deviations from the center line on the</p><p>same side.</p><p>– 4 out of 5 points grea ter than 1 Standard Deviation from the center line on the</p><p>same side.</p><p>– 15 points in a row a ll w ithin one Standard Deviation of either side of the center</p><p>line.</p><p>– 8 points in a row a ll greater than one Standard Devia tion of either side of the</p><p>center line.</p><p>Remember Control Charts are used to monitor a process performance and to detect Special Causes</p><p>due to assignable causes or patterns. The standardized rules of your organization may have some of</p><p>the numbers slightly differing. For example, some organizations have 7 or 8 points in a row on the</p><p>same side of the Center Line. We will soon show you how to find what your MINITABTM version has</p><p>for defaults for the Special Cause tests.</p><p>There are typically 8 available tests for detecting Special Cause variation Only 4 of the 8 SpecialThere are typically 8 available tests for detecting Special Cause variation. Only 4 of the 8 Special</p><p>Cause tests can be used. Range, Moving Range or Standard Deviation charts are used to monitor</p><p>“within” variation.</p><p>If you are unsure of what is meant by these specific rule definitions, do not worry. The next few pages</p><p>will specifically explain how to interpret these rules.</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>604</p><p>Recommended Special Cause Detection Rules</p><p>Statistical Process Control</p><p>If i l i SPC ll i h f i i i ll h i ll b i i l i• If implementing SPC manually without software initially, the most visually obvious violations are</p><p>more easily detected. SPC on manually filled charts are common place for initial use of defect</p><p>prevention techniques.</p><p>• These 3 rules are visually the most easily detected by personnel.</p><p>– One point more than 3 Standard Deviations from the center line.</p><p>– 6 points in a row all either increasing or all decreasing.</p><p>15 i t i ll ithi St d d D i ti f ith id f th t li– 15 points in a row all within one</p><p>Standard Deviation of either side of the center line.</p><p>• Dr. Shewhart that worked with the Western Electric Co. was credited with the following 4 rules</p><p>referred to as W estern Electric Rules.</p><p>– One point more than 3 Standard Deviations from the center line.</p><p>– 8 points in a row on the same side of the center line.</p><p>– 2 out of 3 points greater than 2 Standard Deviations from the center line on the same side.</p><p>Special Cause Rule Default in MINITABTM</p><p>– 4 out of 5 points greater than 1 Standard Deviation from the center line on the same side.</p><p>• You might notice the Western Electric rules vary slightly. The importance is to be consistent in</p><p>your organization and decide what rules you will use to detect special causes.</p><p>• VERY few organizations use all 8 rules for detecting special causes.</p><p>Special Cause Rule Default in MINITAB</p><p>If a Belt is using MINITABTM, you must be aware of what default settings</p><p>for the rules. You can alter your program defaults with:</p><p>Tools>Options>Control Charts and Quality Tools>Define Tests</p><p>This would be</p><p>changed to 8 if</p><p>you prefer the</p><p>W estern Electric</p><p>Rules.</p><p>Many experts have commented on the appropriate tests and numbers to</p><p>be used. Decide and be consistent when implementing.</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>605</p><p>Special Cause Rule Selection in MINITABTM</p><p>Statistical Process Control</p><p>W hen a Belt is using MINITABTM, the default tests can be set when</p><p>running SPC on the variable or Attribute Data.</p><p>Tools>Options>Control Charts and Quality Tools>Tests to Perform</p><p>Special Cause Test Examples</p><p>A Belt can always change which tests are selected for any individual</p><p>SPC chart.</p><p>As promised, we will now</p><p>closely review the definition</p><p>of the Special Cause tests.</p><p>The first test is one point</p><p>more than 3 sigmas from</p><p>the Center Line. The 3</p><p>sigma lines are added or</p><p>Test 1 One point beyond zone A</p><p>A</p><p>B</p><p>1</p><p>This is the M OST common specia l cause test used in SPC charts.</p><p>subtracted from the Center</p><p>Line. The sigma estimation</p><p>for the short-term variation</p><p>will be shown later in this</p><p>module.</p><p>If only one point is above</p><p>the upper 3 sigma line or</p><p>C</p><p>C</p><p>B</p><p>A</p><p>1</p><p>the upper 3 sigma line or</p><p>below the lower 3 sigma</p><p>line, then a Special Cause</p><p>is indicated. This does not</p><p>mean you need to confirm if another point is also outside of the 3 sigma lines before action is to be</p><p>taken. Don’t forget the methodology of using SPC.</p><p>If you want to see the MINITABTM output on the left, execute the MINITABTM command “Stat,</p><p>C t l Ch t V i bl Ch t f I di id l I di id l ” d th l t th “I h t ti d</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>Control Charts, Variable Charts for Individuals, Individuals” and then select the “I chart options and</p><p>Tests tab”. Remember, your numbers may vary in the slide and those are set in the defaults as</p><p>you were shown recently in this module. From now on, we will assume your rules are the same as</p><p>shown in this module. If not, just adjust the conclusions.</p><p>606</p><p>Special Cause Test Examples</p><p>Statistical Process Control</p><p>The second testThe second test</p><p>for detecting</p><p>Special Causes is</p><p>nine points in a</p><p>row on the same</p><p>side of the Center</p><p>Line. This literally</p><p>means if nine</p><p>This test is an indica tion of a shift in the process M ean.</p><p>Test 2 Nine points in a row on</p><p>same side of center line</p><p>A</p><p>B</p><p>consecutive points</p><p>are above the</p><p>Center Line, then</p><p>a Special Cause is</p><p>detected that</p><p>would account for</p><p>a potential Mean</p><p>shift in the</p><p>C</p><p>C</p><p>B</p><p>A</p><p>2</p><p>if nine consecutive points are below the Center Line. The amount away from the Center Line does</p><p>not matter as long as the consecutive points are all on the same side of the Center Line.</p><p>shift in the</p><p>process.</p><p>This rule would</p><p>also be violated</p><p>The third test looking</p><p>for a Special Cause</p><p>is six points in a row</p><p>all increasing or all</p><p>decreasing. This</p><p>means if six</p><p>consecutive times,</p><p>the present point is</p><p>A</p><p>B</p><p>3</p><p>Test 3 Six points in a row, all</p><p>increasing or decreasing</p><p>This test is indicating a trend or gradual shift in the M ean.</p><p>the present point is</p><p>higher than the</p><p>previous point than</p><p>the rule has been</p><p>violated and the</p><p>process is out of</p><p>control. The rule is</p><p>also violated if for six</p><p>C</p><p>C</p><p>B</p><p>A</p><p>consecutive times</p><p>the present point is</p><p>lower than the</p><p>previous point on the SPC chart.</p><p>This rule obviously needs the time order when plotting on the SPC charts to be valid. Typically,</p><p>these charts plot increasing time from left to right with the most recent point on the right hand side of</p><p>the chart Do not make the mistake of seeing six points in a line indicating an out of control condition</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>the chart. Do not make the mistake of seeing six points in a line indicating an out of control condition.</p><p>Note on the example shown on the right, a straight line shows seven points but it takes that many in</p><p>order to have six consecutive points increasing. This rule would be violated no matter what zone the</p><p>points occur.</p><p>607</p><p>Special Cause Test Examples (cont.)</p><p>Statistical Process Control</p><p>The fourth ruleThe fourth rule</p><p>for a Special</p><p>Cause indication</p><p>is fourteen points</p><p>in a row</p><p>alternating up</p><p>and down. In</p><p>other words, if</p><p>This test is indicating a non-random pattern.</p><p>A</p><p>B</p><p>Test 4 Fourteen points in a</p><p>row, alternating up and down</p><p>the first point</p><p>increased from</p><p>the last point and</p><p>the second point</p><p>decreased from</p><p>the first point and</p><p>the third point</p><p>increased from</p><p>C</p><p>C</p><p>B</p><p>A</p><p>4</p><p>then the process is considered out of control or a Special Cause is indicated. This rule does not</p><p>depend on the points being in any particular zone of the chart. Also note the process is not considered</p><p>to be out of control until after the 14th point has followed the alternating up and down pattern.</p><p>increased from</p><p>the second point</p><p>and so on for</p><p>fourteen points,</p><p>The fifth Special Cause</p><p>test looks for 2 out of 3</p><p>consecutive points more</p><p>than 2 sigma away from</p><p>the Center Line on the</p><p>id Th 2 i</p><p>Special Cause Test Examples</p><p>This test is indicating a shift in the M ean or a w orsening of</p><p>varia tion.</p><p>Test 5 Two out of three points in</p><p>a row in zone A (one side of center</p><p>line)</p><p>same side. The 2 sigma</p><p>line is obviously 2/3 of the</p><p>distance from the Center</p><p>Line as the 3 sigma line.</p><p>Please note it is not</p><p>required that the points</p><p>more than 2 sigma away</p><p>be in consecutive order,</p><p>A</p><p>B</p><p>C</p><p>C</p><p>B</p><p>A</p><p>5</p><p>5</p><p>be in consecutive order,</p><p>they just have to be within</p><p>a group of 3 consecutive</p><p>points. Notice the example</p><p>shown on the right does</p><p>NOT have 2 consecutive points 2 sigma away from the Center Line but 2 out of the 3 consecutive</p><p>are more than 2 sigma away. Notice this rule is not violated if the 2 points that are more than 2</p><p>sigma but NOT on the same side.</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>Have you noticed that MINITABTM will automatically place a number by the point that violates the</p><p>Special Cause rule and that number tells you which of the Special Cause tests has been violated.</p><p>In this example shown on the right, the Special Cause rule was violated two times.</p><p>608</p><p>Special Cause Test Examples (cont.)</p><p>Statistical Process Control</p><p>The sixth Special CauseThe sixth Special Cause</p><p>test looks for any four out of</p><p>five points more than one</p><p>sigma from the Center Line</p><p>all on the same side. Only</p><p>the 4 points that were more</p><p>than one sigma need to be</p><p>on the same side. If four of</p><p>th fi ti i t</p><p>This test is indicating a shift in the M ean or degradation of</p><p>varia tion.</p><p>Test 6 Four out of five points in</p><p>zone B or beyond (one side of</p><p>center line)</p><p>A</p><p>B</p><p>C</p><p>6</p><p>the five consecutive points</p><p>are more than one sigma</p><p>from the Center Line and on</p><p>the same side, do NOT</p><p>make the wrong assumption</p><p>that the rule would not be</p><p>violated if one of the four</p><p>points was actually more</p><p>C</p><p>B</p><p>A</p><p>6</p><p>The seventh Special Cause</p><p>test looks for 15 points in a</p><p>row all within one sigma</p><p>from the Center Line. You</p><p>might</p><p>think this is a good</p><p>points was actually more</p><p>than 2 sigma from the</p><p>Center Line.</p><p>This test is indica ting a dramatic improvement of the</p><p>varia tion in the process.</p><p>Test 7 Fifteen points in a row in</p><p>zone C (both sides of center line)</p><p>A</p><p>might think this is a good</p><p>thing and it certainly is.</p><p>However, a process might</p><p>want to find the Special</p><p>Cause for this reduced</p><p>variation so the</p><p>improvement can be</p><p>sustained in the future.</p><p>B</p><p>C</p><p>C</p><p>B</p><p>A</p><p>7</p><p>The eighth and final test</p><p>for Special Cause</p><p>detection is having eight</p><p>points in a row all more</p><p>than one sigma from the</p><p>Center Line. The eight</p><p>consecutive points can be Test 8 Eight points in a row</p><p>This test is indicating a severe w orsening of varia tion.</p><p>p</p><p>any number of sigma</p><p>away from the Center</p><p>Line. Do NOT make the</p><p>wrong assumption this rule</p><p>would not be violated if</p><p>some of the points were</p><p>more than 2 sigma away</p><p>from the Center Line If</p><p>beyond zone C (both sides of</p><p>center line)</p><p>A</p><p>B</p><p>C</p><p>C</p><p>B</p><p>A</p><p>8</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>from the Center Line. If</p><p>you reread the rule, it just</p><p>states the points must be</p><p>more than one sigma from</p><p>the Center Line.</p><p>609</p><p>SPC Center Line and Control Limit Calculations</p><p>Statistical Process Control</p><p>This is a reference for you in case you really want to get into the nitty-gritty The formulas shown hereThis is a reference for you in case you really want to get into the nitty gritty. The formulas shown here</p><p>are the basis for Control Charts.</p><p>Calcula te the parameters of the Individual and M R Control Charts</p><p>w ith the follow ing:</p><p>k</p><p>k</p><p>Centerline Control Limits</p><p>Where:</p><p>Xbar: Average of the individuals, becomes the centerline on the Individuals chart</p><p>Xi: Individual data points</p><p>k: Number of individual data points</p><p>Ri : Moving range between individuals, generally calculated using the difference between</p><p>each successive pair of readings</p><p>MRbar: The average moving range the centerline on the range chart</p><p>k</p><p>x</p><p>X</p><p>k</p><p>1i</p><p>i</p><p>k</p><p>R</p><p>RM i</p><p>i RMEXUCL 2x</p><p>RMEXLCL 2x</p><p>RMDUCL 4MR</p><p>RMDLCL 3MR</p><p>MRbar: The average moving range, the centerline on the range chart</p><p>UCLX: Upper control limit on individuals chart</p><p>LCLX: Lower control limit on individuals chart</p><p>UCLMR: Upper control limit on moving range</p><p>LCLMR : Lower control limit on moving range (does not apply for sample sizes below 7)</p><p>E2, D3, D4: Constants that vary according to the sample size used in obtaining the moving range</p><p>M Rbar (computed above)</p><p>d2 (table of constants for subgroup size n)(st. dev. Estimate) = M Rbar (computed above)</p><p>d2 (table of constants for subgroup size n)(st. dev. Estimate) =</p><p>Calcula te the parameters of the XBar and R Control Charts w ith the</p><p>follow ing:</p><p>k</p><p>R</p><p>k</p><p>Centerline Control Limits</p><p>k</p><p>x</p><p>X 1i</p><p>i</p><p>k</p><p>R</p><p>R i</p><p>i RAXUCL 2x</p><p>RAXLCL 2x</p><p>RDUCL 4R</p><p>RDLCL 3RWhere:</p><p>Xi: Average of the subgroup averages, it becomes the centerline of the control chart</p><p>Xi: Average of each subgroup</p><p>k: Number of subgroups</p><p>Ri : Range of each subgroup (Maximum observation – Minimum observation)</p><p>Rbar: The average range of the subgroups, the centerline on the range chart</p><p>UCL : Upper control limit on average chart</p><p>Where:</p><p>Xi: Average of the subgroup averages, it becomes the centerline of the control chart</p><p>Xi: Average of each subgroup</p><p>k: Number of subgroups</p><p>Ri : Range of each subgroup (Maximum observation – Minimum observation)</p><p>Rbar: The average range of the subgroups, the centerline on the range chart</p><p>UCL : Upper control limit on average chartUCLX: Upper control limit on average chart</p><p>LCLX: Lower control limit on average chart</p><p>UCLR: Upper control limit on range chart</p><p>LCLR : Lower control limit range chart</p><p>A2, D3, D4: Constants that vary according to the subgroup sample size</p><p>UCLX: Upper control limit on average chart</p><p>LCLX: Lower control limit on average chart</p><p>UCLR: Upper control limit on range chart</p><p>LCLR : Lower control limit range chart</p><p>A2, D3, D4: Constants that vary according to the subgroup sample size</p><p>Rbar (computed above)</p><p>d2 (table of constants for subgroup size n)(st. dev. Estimate) = Rbar (computed above)</p><p>d2 (table of constants for subgroup size n)(st. dev. Estimate) =</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>610</p><p>SPC Center Line and Control Limit Calculations (cont.)</p><p>Statistical Process Control</p><p>Yet another reference just in case anyone wants to do this stuff manually have fun!!!!Yet another reference just in case anyone wants to do this stuff manually…have fun!!!!</p><p>Calcula te the parameters of the XBar and S Control Charts w ith the</p><p>follow ing:</p><p>x</p><p>k</p><p>i SAXUCL 3x</p><p>Centerline Control Limits</p><p>s</p><p>k</p><p>i SBUCL 4S</p><p>Where:</p><p>Xi: Average of the subgroup averages, it becomes the centerline of the control chart</p><p>Xi: Average of each subgroup</p><p>k: Number of subgroups</p><p>si : Standard deviation of each subgroup</p><p>Sbar: The average s. d. of the subgroups, the centerline on the S chart</p><p>UCL : Upper control limit on average chart</p><p>Where:</p><p>Xi: Average of the subgroup averages, it becomes the centerline of the control chart</p><p>Xi: Average of each subgroup</p><p>k: Number of subgroups</p><p>si : Standard deviation of each subgroup</p><p>Sbar: The average s. d. of the subgroups, the centerline on the S chart</p><p>UCL : Upper control limit on average chart</p><p>k</p><p>X 1i</p><p>3x</p><p>SAXLCL 3xk</p><p>S 1i 4S</p><p>SBLCL 3S</p><p>UCLX: Upper control limit on average chart</p><p>LCLX: Lower control limit on average chart</p><p>UCLS: Upper control limit on S chart</p><p>LCLS : Lower control limit S chart</p><p>A3, B3, B4: Constants that vary according to the subgroup sample size</p><p>UCLX: Upper control limit on average chart</p><p>LCLX: Lower control limit on average chart</p><p>UCLS: Upper control limit on S chart</p><p>LCLS : Lower control limit S chart</p><p>A3, B3, B4: Constants that vary according to the subgroup sample size</p><p>Sbar (computed above)</p><p>c4 (table of constants for subgroup size n)(st. dev. Estimate) = Sbar (computed above)</p><p>c4 (table of constants for subgroup size n)(st. dev. Estimate) =</p><p>We are now moving to the formula summaries for the attribute SPC Charts. These formulas are fairly</p><p>basic. The upper and lower Control Limits are equidistant from the Mean % defective unless you</p><p>reach a natural limit of 100 or 0%. Remember the p Chart is for tracking the proportion or % defective.</p><p>These formulas are a bit more elementary because they are for Attribute Control Charts. Recall p</p><p>Charts track the proportion or % defective.</p><p>Calcula te the parameters of the P Control Charts w ith the follow ing:</p><p>inspected items ofnumber Total</p><p>items defective ofnumber Totalp</p><p>in</p><p>pp )1(3pUCLp</p><p>Centerline Control Limits</p><p>pp )1(</p><p>Where:</p><p>p: Average proportion defective (0.0 – 1.0)</p><p>ni: Number inspected in each subgroup</p><p>LCLp: Lower control limit on p chart</p><p>UCLp: Upper control limit on p chart</p><p>in</p><p>pp )1(3pLCLp</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>Since the Control Limits are a function of</p><p>sample size, they will vary for each sample.</p><p>611</p><p>SPC Center Line and Control Limit Calculations (cont.)</p><p>Statistical Process Control</p><p>The nP Chart’s formulas resemble the P Chart This chart tracks the number of defective items in aThe nP Chart s formulas resemble the P Chart. This chart tracks the number of defective items in a</p><p>subgroup.</p><p>Calcula te the parameters of the nP Control Charts w ith the</p><p>follow ing:</p><p>Centerline Control Limits</p><p>Where:</p><p>np: Average number defective items per subgroup</p><p>ni: Number inspected in each subgroup</p><p>subgroups ofnumber Total</p><p>items defective ofnumber Totalpn )1(3pnUCL inp ppni</p><p>p)-p(1n3pnLCL iinp</p><p>LCLnp: Lower control limit on nP chart</p><p>UCLnp: Upper control limit on nP chart</p><p>Since the Control Limits AND Center Line are a function</p><p>of sample size, they will vary for each sample.</p><p>The U Chart is also basic in construction and is used to monitor the number of defects per unit.</p><p>Calcula te the parameters of the U Control Charts w ith the</p><p>follow ing:</p><p>Where:</p><p>Inspected Unitsofnumber Total</p><p>Identified defects ofnumber Totalu</p><p>in</p><p>u3uUCLu</p><p>Centerline Control Limits</p><p>in</p><p>u3uLCLu</p><p>u: Total number of defects divided by the total number</p><p>of units inspected.</p><p>ni: Number inspected in each subgroup</p><p>LCLu: Lower control limit on u chart.</p><p>UCLu: Upper control limit on u chart.</p><p>Since the Control Limits are a function of sample</p><p>size they will vary for each sample</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>size, they will vary for each sample.</p><p>612</p><p>SPC Center Line and Control Limit Calculations (cont.)</p><p>Statistical Process Control</p><p>The C Control Charts are a nice way of monitoring the number of defects in sampled subgroupsThe C Control Charts are a nice way of monitoring the number of defects in sampled subgroups.</p><p>Calcula te the parameters of the C Control Charts w ith the</p><p>follow ing:</p><p>Centerline Control Limits</p><p>W here:</p><p>subgroups ofnumber Total</p><p>defects ofnumber Totalc c3cUCLc</p><p>Centerline Control Limits</p><p>c3cLCLc</p><p>This EWMA can be considered a smoothing monitoring system with Control Limits. This is rarely used</p><p>without computers or automated calculations. The items plotted are NOT the actual measurements</p><p>b t th i ht d t Th ti ll i ht d i i f l f id i</p><p>c: Total number of defects divided by the total number of subgroups.</p><p>LCLc: Lower control limit on c chart.</p><p>UCLc: Upper control limit on c chart.</p><p>but the weighted measurements. The exponentially weighted moving average is useful for considering</p><p>past and historical data and is most commonly used for individual measurements although has been</p><p>used for averages of subgroups.</p><p>Calcula te the parameters of the EW M A Control Charts w ith</p><p>the follow ing:</p><p>W here:</p><p>1ttt ZȜ)(1 X ȜZ ]Ȝ)(1)[1</p><p>Ȝ2</p><p>Ȝ(</p><p>n</p><p>ı3XUCL 2t</p><p>Centerline Control Limits</p><p>]Ȝ)(1)[1</p><p>Ȝ2</p><p>Ȝ(</p><p>n</p><p>ı3XLCL 2t</p><p>Zt: EWMA statistic plotted on control chart at time t</p><p>Zt-1: EWMA statistic plotted on control chart at time t-1</p><p>: The weighting factor between 0 and 1 – suggest using 0.2</p><p>: Standard deviation of historical data (pooled standard deviation for subgroups</p><p>– MRbar/d2 for individual observations)</p><p>Xt: Individual data point or sample averages at time t</p><p>UCL: Upper control limit on EWMA chart</p><p>LCL: Lower control limit on EWMA chart</p><p>S b l i</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>n: Subgroup sample size</p><p>613</p><p>SPC Center Line and Control Limit Calculations (cont.)</p><p>Statistical Process Control</p><p>Calcula te the parameters of the CUSUM Control Charts w ith</p><p>M IN ITABTM or other program since the ca lcula tions are even</p><p>more complicated than the EW M A charts.</p><p>Because of this complex ity of formulas, ex ecution of either</p><p>this or the EW M A are not done w ithout automation and</p><p>computer assistance.</p><p>The CUSUM is an even more difficult technique to handle with manual calculations We aren’t even</p><p>Ah, anybody got a laptop?</p><p>The CUSUM is an even more difficult technique to handle with manual calculations. We aren t even</p><p>showing the math behind this rarely used chart. Following the Control Chart selection route shown</p><p>earlier, we remember the CUSUM is used when historical information is as important as present data.</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>614</p><p>Pre-Control Charts</p><p>Statistical Process Control</p><p>Pre-Control Charts use limits relative to the specification limits. This is the first</p><p>and ONLY chart you will see specification limits plotted for statistical process</p><p>control. This is the most basic type of chart and unsophisticated use of process</p><p>control.</p><p>Red Zones. Zone outside the</p><p>specification limits. Signals the</p><p>process is out-of-control and</p><p>0.5 0.750.25 1.00.0 0.5 0.750.25 1.00.0</p><p>should be stopped</p><p>RED Yellow Yellow RedGREENRED Yellow Yellow RedGREEN</p><p>Yellow Zones. Zone between</p><p>the PC Lines and the</p><p>specification limits, indicates</p><p>caution and the need to watch</p><p>the process closely</p><p>The Pre-Control Charts are often used for startups with high scrap cost or low production volumes</p><p>between setups. Pre-Control Charts are like a stoplight are the easiest type of SPC to use by</p><p>Target USLLSL Target USLLSL</p><p>Green Zone. Zone lies</p><p>between the PC Lines, signals the</p><p>process is in control</p><p>operators or staff. Remember Pre-Control Charts are to be used ONLY for outputs of a process.</p><p>Another approach to using Pre-Control Charts is to use process capability to set the limits where</p><p>yellow and red meet.</p><p>Process Setup and Restart with Pre-Control</p><p>Q lif i PQualifying Process</p><p>• To qualify a process, five consecutive parts must fall within the green zone</p><p>• The process should be qualified after tool changes, adjustments, new</p><p>operators, material changes, etc</p><p>M onitoring Ongoing Process</p><p>• Sample two consecutive parts at predetermined frequency</p><p>– If either part is in the red, stop production and find reason for variation</p><p>– W hen one part falls in the yellow zone inspect the other and</p><p>• If the second part falls in the green zone then continue</p><p>• If the second part falls in the yellow zone on the same side, make an</p><p>adjustment to the process</p><p>• If second part falls in the yellow zone on the opposite side or in the</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>red zone, the process is out of control and should be stopped</p><p>– If any part falls outside the specification limits or in the red zone, the</p><p>process is out of control and should be stopped</p><p>615</p><p>Responding to Out of Control Indications</p><p>Statistical Process Control</p><p>SPC is an exciting</p><p>• The power of SPC isn’t to find out what the Center Line and Control Limits are.</p><p>• The power is to react to the Out of Control (OOC) indications with your Out of Control</p><p>Action Plans (OCAP) for the process involved. These actions are your corrective actions</p><p>to correct the output or input to achieve proper conditions.</p><p>40</p><p>30</p><p>UCL=39.76</p><p>1</p><p>Individual SPC chart for Response Time VIOLATION:</p><p>special cause is indicated</p><p>SPC is an exciting</p><p>tool but we must</p><p>not get enamored</p><p>with. The power of</p><p>SPC is not to find</p><p>the Center Line and</p><p>Control Limits but</p><p>to react to out of</p><p>• SPC requires immediate response to a special cause indication.</p><p>Observation</p><p>In</p><p>di</p><p>vi</p><p>du</p><p>al</p><p>V</p><p>al</p><p>ue</p><p>3128252219161310741</p><p>20</p><p>10</p><p>0</p><p>_</p><p>X=18.38</p><p>LCL=-3.01</p><p>OCAP</p><p>If response time is too high, get</p><p>additional person on phone bank</p><p>control indications</p><p>with an out of</p><p>control action plan.</p><p>SPC for</p><p>effectiveness at</p><p>controlling and</p><p>reducing long-term</p><p>variation is to</p><p>SPC can be actually harmful if those operating the process respond to process variation with</p><p>suboptimizing. A basic rule of SPC is if it is not out of control as indicated by the rules, then do not</p><p>• SPC also requires no “sub optimizing” by those operating the process.</p><p>– Variability will increase if operators always adjust on every point if not at the center</p><p>line. ONLY respond when an Out of Control or special cause is detected.</p><p>– Training is required to interpret the charts and response to the charts.</p><p>variation is to</p><p>respond</p><p>immediately to out</p><p>of control or</p><p>Special Cause</p><p>indications.</p><p>suboptimizing. A basic rule of SPC is if it is not out of control as indicated by the rules, then do not</p><p>make any adjustments. There are studies where an operator that responds to off center</p><p>measurements will actually produce worse variation than a process not altered at all. Remember,</p><p>being off the Center Line is NOT a sign of out of control because Common Cause variation exists.</p><p>Training is required to use and interpret the charts not to mention training for you as a Belt to properly</p><p>create an SPC chart.</p><p>Attribute SPC ExampleAttribute SPC Example</p><p>Practica l Problem: A project has been launched to get rework</p><p>reduced to less than 25% of paychecks. Rework includes contacting a</p><p>manager about overtime hours to be paid. The project made some</p><p>progress but decides they need to implement SPC to sustain the gains</p><p>and track % defective. Please analyze the file “paycheck2.mtw” and</p><p>determine the Control Limits and Center Line.determine the Control Limits and Center Line.</p><p>Step 3 and 5 of the methodology is the primary focus for this example.</p><p>– Select the appropriate control chart and specia l cause tests</p><p>to employ</p><p>– Calcula te the Center Line and Control Limits</p><p>– Looking at the data set, we see 20 weeks of data.</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>– The sample size is constant at 250.</p><p>– The amount of defective in the sample is in column C3.</p><p>Paycheck2.mtw</p><p>616</p><p>Attribute SPC Example (cont.)</p><p>Statistical Process Control</p><p>The example includes % paychecks defective. The metric to</p><p>be charted is % defective. W e see the P Chart is the most</p><p>appropriate attribute SPC chart.</p><p>Notice specifications were never discussed. Let us calculate the Control</p><p>Limits and Central Line for this example.</p><p>W e will confirm what rules for special causes are included in our Control</p><p>Chart analysis.</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>617</p><p>Attribute SPC Example (cont.)</p><p>Statistical Process Control</p><p>Remember to click on the Options and Tests tab to clarify the rules for</p><p>detecting special causes.</p><p>…. Chart Options>Tests</p><p>W e will confirm what rules for special causes are included in our Control</p><p>Chart analysis. The top 3 were selected.</p><p>No special causes were detected. The average % defective checks were</p><p>20.38%. The UCL was 28.0% and 12.7% for the LCL.</p><p>0.30</p><p>P Chart of Empl_w_Errors</p><p>Pr</p><p>op</p><p>or</p><p>ti</p><p>on</p><p>0.25</p><p>0.20</p><p>0.15</p><p>_</p><p>P=0.2038</p><p>UCL=0.2802</p><p>LCL=0 1274</p><p>Now we must see if the next few weeks are showing special cause from</p><p>the results. The sample size remained at 250 and the defective checks</p><p>were 61, 64, 77.</p><p>Sample</p><p>191715131197531</p><p>LCL=0.1274</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>618</p><p>Attribute SPC Example (cont.)</p><p>Statistical Process Control</p><p>Remember, we have calculated the Control Limits from the first 20 weeks.</p><p>W e must now put in 3 new weeks and NOT have MINITABTM calculate</p><p>new Control Limits which will be done automatically if we do not follow</p><p>this technique. W e are executing Steps 6-8</p><p>– Step 6 : Plot process X or Y on the new ly created control</p><p>chart</p><p>– Step 7 : Check for Out-Of-Control (OOC) conditions a fter each</p><p>point</p><p>– Step 8 : Interpret findings, investigate specia l cause</p><p>varia tion, & make improvements follow ing the Out of</p><p>Control Action Plan (OCAP)</p><p>Notice the new 3 weeks of data was entered</p><p>into the spreadsheet.</p><p>Place the pbar from the 1st chart</p><p>we created in the estimates tab.</p><p>This will prevent MINITABTM from</p><p>…… Chart Options>Parameters</p><p>This will prevent MINITABTM from</p><p>calculating new control limits</p><p>which is step 9.</p><p>0.30</p><p>UCL=0.2802</p><p>1</p><p>P Chart of Empl_w_Errors</p><p>The new updated SPC chart</p><p>Sample</p><p>Pr</p><p>op</p><p>or</p><p>ti</p><p>on</p><p>2321191715131197531</p><p>0.25</p><p>0.20</p><p>0.15</p><p>_</p><p>P=0.2038</p><p>LCL=0.1274</p><p>is shown with one special</p><p>cause.</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>619</p><p>Attribute SPC Example (cont.)</p><p>Statistical Process Control</p><p>Because of the specia l cause, the process must refer to the OCAP or Out of Control</p><p>Action Plan that sta tes w hat root causes need to be investigated and w hat actions a re</p><p>taken to get the process back in control.</p><p>n</p><p>0.30</p><p>0.25</p><p>UCL=0.2802</p><p>1</p><p>P Chart of Empl_w_Errors</p><p>After the corrective actions w ere taken, w a it until the nex t sample is taken to see if the</p><p>process has changed to not show specia l cause actions</p><p>Sample</p><p>Pr</p><p>op</p><p>or</p><p>ti</p><p>on</p><p>2321191715131197531</p><p>0.20</p><p>0.15</p><p>_</p><p>P=0.2038</p><p>LCL=0.1274</p><p>process has changed to not show specia l cause actions.</p><p>– If still out of control, refer to the OCAP and take further action to improve the</p><p>process. DO N OT make any more changes if the process show s back in</p><p>control a fter the nex t reading.</p><p>• Even if the nex t reading seems higher than the center line! Don’t cause</p><p>more variability.</p><p>If process changes a re documented a fter this project w as closed, the Control Limits</p><p>should be reca lcula ted as in step 9 of the SPC methodology.</p><p>Practica l Problem: A job shop drills holes for its largest customer as</p><p>a final step to deliver a highly engineered fastener. This shop uses five</p><p>drill presses and gathers data every hour with one sample from each</p><p>press representing a subgroup. The data is gathered in columns C3-C7.</p><p>Step 3 and 5 of the methodology is the primary focus for this example.</p><p>– Select the appropria te Control Chart and specia l</p><p>cause tests to employ</p><p>– Calcula te the Center Line and Control Limits</p><p>Holediameter.mtw</p><p>Let’s walk through another example of using SPC within MINITABTM but in this case it will be</p><p>with Continuous Data. Open the MINITABTM worksheet called “hole diameter” and select the</p><p>appropriate type of Control Chart and calculate the Center Line and Control Limits.</p><p>Lets try another one this time variable</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>Lets try another one, this time variable…</p><p>620</p><p>Attribute SPC Example (cont.)</p><p>Statistical Process Control</p><p>The example has Continuous Data, subgroups and we have</p><p>no interest in small changes in this small process output.</p><p>The XBar R Chart is selected because we are uninterested in</p><p>the XBar S Chart for this example.</p><p>Specifications were never discussed. Let us calculate the Control Limits</p><p>and Central Line for this example.</p><p>W e will confirm what rules for special causes are included in our Control</p><p>Chart analysis.</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>621</p><p>Attribute SPC Example (cont.)</p><p>Statistical Process Control</p><p>Remember to click on the Options and Tests tab to clarify the rules for</p><p>detecting special causes.</p><p>……..Xbar-R Chart Options>Tests</p><p>W e will confirm what rules for special causes are included in our</p><p>Control Chart analysis. The top 2 of 3 were selected.</p><p>Also confirm the Rbar method is used for estimating Standard Deviation.</p><p>Stat>Control Charts>Variable Charts for Subgroups>Xbar-R>Xbar-R Chart Options>Estimate</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>622</p><p>Attribute SPC Example (cont.)</p><p>Statistical Process Control</p><p>No special causes were detected in the XBar Chart. The average hole</p><p>diameter was 26.33. The UCL was 33.1 and 19.6 for the LCL.</p><p>M</p><p>e</p><p>a</p><p>n</p><p>35</p><p>30</p><p>UCL=33.07</p><p>Xbar-R Chart of Part1, ..., Part5</p><p>e</p><p>M</p><p>e</p><p>a</p><p>n</p><p>35</p><p>30</p><p>_</p><p>UC L=33.07</p><p>Xbar-R Chart of Part1, ..., Part5</p><p>Sample</p><p>S</p><p>a</p><p>m</p><p>p</p><p>le</p><p>464136312621161161</p><p>25</p><p>20</p><p>__</p><p>X=26.33</p><p>LCL=19.59</p><p>S</p><p>a</p><p>m</p><p>p</p><p>le</p><p>R</p><p>a</p><p>n</p><p>g</p><p>e</p><p>24</p><p>18</p><p>12</p><p>6</p><p>_</p><p>R=11.69</p><p>UCL=24.72</p><p>1</p><p>Sample</p><p>S</p><p>a</p><p>m</p><p>p</p><p>le</p><p>464136312621161161</p><p>25</p><p>20</p><p>_</p><p>X=26.33</p><p>LC L=19.59</p><p>S</p><p>a</p><p>m</p><p>p</p><p>le</p><p>R</p><p>a</p><p>n</p><p>g</p><p>e</p><p>24</p><p>18</p><p>12</p><p>6</p><p>_</p><p>R=11.69</p><p>UC L=24.72</p><p>1</p><p>Now we will use the Control Chart to monitor the next 2 hours and see if</p><p>we are still in control.</p><p>Sample</p><p>464136312621161161</p><p>0 LCL=0</p><p>Sample</p><p>464136312621161161</p><p>0 LC L=0</p><p>Remember, we have calculated the Control Limits from the first 20 weeks.</p><p>W e must now put in 2 more hours and NOT have MINITABTM calculate</p><p>new Control Limits which will be done automatically if we do not follow</p><p>this step. W e are executing Steps 6-8</p><p>– Step 6 : Plot process X or Y on the new ly created Control</p><p>Chart</p><p>– Step 7 : Check for Out-Of-Control (OOC) conditions after each</p><p>point</p><p>– Step 8 : Interpret findings, investiga te specia l cause</p><p>varia tion, & make improvements follow ing the Out of</p><p>Control Action Plan (OCAP)</p><p>Notice the new 2 hours of data was</p><p>entered into the spreadsheet.</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>623</p><p>Attribute SPC Example (cont.)</p><p>Statistical Process Control</p><p>Place the M ean from the 1 st chart w e crea ted</p><p>in the estimates tab. The Standard Devia tion</p><p>is Rbar/ d2 . This w ill prevent M IN ITABTM</p><p>from ca lculating new Control Limits</p><p>w hich is step 9 . d2 is found by finding</p><p>the table of constants show n earlier.</p><p>……..Xbar-R Chart Options>Parameters</p><p>the table of constants show n earlier.</p><p>The new updated SPC chart is show n w ith</p><p>no indica ted specia l causes in the XBar Sample</p><p>S</p><p>a</p><p>m</p><p>p</p><p>le</p><p>M</p><p>e</p><p>a</p><p>n</p><p>51464136312621161161</p><p>35</p><p>30</p><p>25</p><p>20</p><p>__</p><p>X=26.33</p><p>UCL=33.07</p><p>LCL=19.59</p><p>Xbar-R Chart of Part1, ..., Part5</p><p>chart. The mean, UCL and LCL are</p><p>unchanged because of the completed option</p><p>above.</p><p>Sample</p><p>S</p><p>a</p><p>m</p><p>p</p><p>le</p><p>R</p><p>a</p><p>n</p><p>g</p><p>e</p><p>51464136312621161161</p><p>24</p><p>18</p><p>12</p><p>6</p><p>0</p><p>_</p><p>R=11.69</p><p>UCL=24.72</p><p>LCL=0</p><p>1</p><p>Because of no specia l causes, the process does not refer to the OCAP or Out</p><p>of Control Action Plan and N O actions are taken.</p><p>35</p><p>UCL 33 07</p><p>Xbar-R Chart of Part1, ..., Part5</p><p>35</p><p>UC L=33.07</p><p>Xbar-R Chart of Part1, ..., Part5</p><p>Sample</p><p>S</p><p>a</p><p>m</p><p>p</p><p>le</p><p>M</p><p>e</p><p>a</p><p>n</p><p>51464136312621161161</p><p>30</p><p>25</p><p>20</p><p>__</p><p>X=26.33</p><p>UCL=33.07</p><p>LCL=19.59</p><p>g</p><p>e</p><p>24</p><p>18</p><p>UCL=24.72</p><p>1</p><p>Sample</p><p>S</p><p>a</p><p>m</p><p>p</p><p>le</p><p>M</p><p>e</p><p>a</p><p>n</p><p>51464136312621161161</p><p>30</p><p>25</p><p>20</p><p>__</p><p>X=26.33</p><p>UC L 33.07</p><p>LC L=19.59</p><p>g</p><p>e</p><p>24</p><p>18</p><p>UC L=24.72</p><p>1</p><p>If process changes are documented a fter this project w as closed, the Control</p><p>Limits should be reca lcula ted as in step 9 of the SPC methodology.</p><p>Sample</p><p>S</p><p>a</p><p>m</p><p>p</p><p>le</p><p>R</p><p>a</p><p>n</p><p>g</p><p>51464136312621161161</p><p>18</p><p>12</p><p>6</p><p>0</p><p>_</p><p>R=11.69</p><p>LCL=0</p><p>Sample</p><p>S</p><p>a</p><p>m</p><p>p</p><p>le</p><p>R</p><p>a</p><p>n</p><p>51464136312621161161</p><p>18</p><p>12</p><p>6</p><p>0</p><p>_</p><p>R=11.69</p><p>LC L=0</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>624</p><p>Recalculation of SPC Chart Limits</p><p>Statistical Process Control</p><p>St 9 f th th d l f t l l ti SPC li it• Step 9 of the methodology refers to recalculating SPC limits.</p><p>• Processes should see improvement in variation after usage of SPC.</p><p>• Reduction in variation or known process shift should result in Center</p><p>Line and Control Limits recalculations.</p><p>– Statistical confidence of the changes can be confirmed with</p><p>Hypothesis Testing from the Analyze PhaseHypothesis Testing from the Analyze Phase.</p><p>• Consider a periodic time frame for checking Limits and Center Lines.</p><p>– 3, 6, 12 months are typical and dependent on resources and</p><p>priorities</p><p>– A set frequency allows for process changes to be captured.</p><p>• Incentive to recalculate limits include avoiding false special cause• Incentive to recalculate limits include avoiding false special cause</p><p>detection with poorly monitored processes.</p><p>• These recommendations are true for both Variable and Attribute data.</p><p>SPC Chart Option in MINITABTM for Levels</p><p>Remembering many of the tests are based on the 1st and 2nd Standard</p><p>Deviations from the Center Line, some Belts prefer to have some additional</p><p>lines displayed. This is possible with:</p><p>Stat>Quality Charts> ….. Options>S Limits “tab”Stat>Quality Charts> ….. Options>S Limits tab</p><p>The extra lines can be helpful if users are using MINITABTM for the SPC.</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>625</p><p>At this point, you should be able to:</p><p>Statistical Process Control</p><p>� Describe the elements of an SPC chart and the purposes of</p><p>SPC</p><p>� Understand how SPC ranks in defect prevention</p><p>� Describe the 13 Step route or methodology of implementing a</p><p>chartchart</p><p>� Design subgroups if needed for SPC usage</p><p>� Determine the frequency of sampling</p><p>� Understand the Control Chart selection methodology</p><p>� Be familiar with Control Chart parameter calculations such as</p><p>You have now completed Control Phase – Statistical Process Control.</p><p>UCL, LCL and the Center Line</p><p>Notes</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>626</p><p>Lean Six Sigma</p><p>Black Belt Training</p><p>Control Phase</p><p>Six Sigma Control Plans</p><p>Control Phase</p><p>Six Sigma Control Plans</p><p>Now we are going to continue in the Control Phase with “Six Sigma Control Plans”.</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>627</p><p>Six Sigma Control Plans</p><p>Overview</p><p>The last physical result</p><p>of the Control Phase is</p><p>the Control Plan. This</p><p>module will discuss a</p><p>technique to selection</p><p>various solutions you</p><p>might want from all of</p><p>your defect reduction</p><p>techniques found Lean ControlsLean Controls</p><p>Advanced CapabilityAdvanced Capability</p><p>Advanced Ex perimentsAdvanced Ex periments</p><p>W elcome to ControlW elcome to Control</p><p>techniques found</p><p>earlier in this phase.</p><p>We will also discuss</p><p>elements of a Control</p><p>Plan to aid you and</p><p>your organization to</p><p>sustain your project’s</p><p>results.</p><p>Six Sigma Control PlansSix Sigma Control Plans</p><p>Defect ControlsDefect Controls</p><p>Sta tistica l Process Control</p><p>(SPC)</p><p>Sta tistica l Process Control</p><p>(SPC)</p><p>Solution SelectionSolution Selection</p><p>Control Plan ElementsControl Plan Elements</p><p>End of Control: Your Objectives</p><p>We will examine the</p><p>meaning of each of</p><p>these and show you</p><p>how to apply them.</p><p>W rap Up & Action ItemsW rap Up & Action Items</p><p>You’ve already decided on the some defect reduction methodology.</p><p>Final decisions need to clarify which defect reduction tools to use.</p><p>– Capital expenditures may be required.</p><p>– Training hurdles to overcome.</p><p>– Management buy-in not completed.g y p</p><p>This module will help select solutions with a familiar tool.</p><p>The Control Phase allows the Belt and its team to tackle other processes in the</p><p>future.</p><p>– The elements of a Control Phase aid to document how to maintain the</p><p>process.</p><p>We have discussed all of the tools to improve and sustain your project success. However, you might have</p><p>ti t ti t i l t fi l it i t l Thi d l ill id i</p><p>This module identifies the elements of strong Control Plans.</p><p>Remember: The objective is to sustain the gains initially found in the</p><p>D,M,A,I Phases.</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>many options or too many options to implement final monitoring or controls. This module will aid you in</p><p>defect reduction selection.</p><p>Another objective of this module is to understand the elements of a good Control Plan needed to sustain</p><p>your gains.</p><p>628</p><p>Selecting Solutions</p><p>Six Sigma Control Plans</p><p>Selecting improvements to implement:</p><p>– High-level objective evaluation of all potential improvements</p><p>• Impact of each improvement</p><p>• Cost to implement each improvement</p><p>• Time to implement each improvement</p><p>– Balance desire with quantifiable evaluation– Balance desire with quantifiable evaluation</p><p>• Engineering always wants the gold standard</p><p>• Sales always wants inventory</p><p>• Production always wants more capacity</p><p>The tool for selecting defect prevention methods is unnecessary for just a</p><p>f h t th</p><p>Selecting solutions comes down to a business decision. The impact, cost and timeliness of the</p><p>improvement are all important. These improvement possibilities must be balanced against the</p><p>business needs. A cost benefit analysis is always a good tool to use to assist in determining the</p><p>few changes to the process.</p><p>– Many projects with smaller scopes have few, but vital control</p><p>methods put into the process.</p><p>Impact Considerations</p><p>y y g g</p><p>priorities.</p><p>Recall us talking about the progression of a Six Sigma project? Practical Problem – Statistical</p><p>Problem – Statistical Solution – Practical Solution. Consider the Practical Solutions from a</p><p>business decision point of view.</p><p>Impact of the improvement:</p><p>– Time frame of improvements</p><p>• Long-term vs. Short-term effectiveness</p><p>– If a supplier will lose a major customer because of defects,</p><p>the short term benefit will prevail first.</p><p>– Effectiveness of the improvement types</p><p>• Removing the root cause of the defect</p><p>• Monitoring/ flagging for the condition that produces a defect</p><p>• Inspecting to determine if the defect occurred</p><p>• Training people not to produce defects</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>Now that’s IMPACT!</p><p>629</p><p>Cost Considerations</p><p>Six Sigma Control Plans</p><p>Cost to implement improvement:</p><p>– Initial cost to implement improvement</p><p>• Cost to train existing work force</p><p>• Cost to purchase any new materials necessary for</p><p>improvement</p><p>• Cost of resources used to build improvement</p><p>• Any capital investments required</p><p>– On-going costs to sustain improvement</p><p>• Future training, inspection, monitoring, and material costs</p><p>It’s all about the cash!</p><p>Time Considerations</p><p>Time to implement improvement:</p><p>– Technical time constraints</p><p>• W hat is the minimum time it would take to implement?W hat is the minimum time it would take to implement?</p><p>– Time to build/ create improvement,</p><p>time to implement</p><p>improvement</p><p>– Political time constraints</p><p>• W hat other priorities are competing for the technical time to</p><p>build the improvement?</p><p>Cultural time constraints– Cultural time constraints</p><p>• How long will it take to gain support from necessary</p><p>stakeholders?</p><p>The clock’s ticking</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>The clock s ticking……</p><p>630</p><p>Improvement Selection Matrix</p><p>Six Sigma Control Plans</p><p>I l ti thi f ili t l t i iti dImplementing this familia r tool to prioritize proposed</p><p>improvements is based on the three selection criteria of</p><p>time, cost and impact.</p><p>– All the process outputs are rated in terms of their relative</p><p>importance to the process</p><p>Th t t f i t t ill b th th i XY• The outputs of interest will be the same as those in your X-Y</p><p>Matrix.</p><p>• The relative ranking of importance of the outputs are the same</p><p>numbers from the updated X-Y Matrix.</p><p>– Each potential improvement is rated against the three criteria of</p><p>time cost and impact using a standardized rating scaletime, cost, and impact using a standardized rating scale</p><p>– Highest overall rated improvements are best choices for</p><p>implementation</p><p>This should</p><p>resemble the X-Y</p><p>Matrix. This tool is</p><p>of no use if you</p><p>have one or two</p><p>improvement</p><p>efforts to consider.</p><p>The outputs listedThe outputs listed</p><p>above in most</p><p>cases resemble</p><p>those of your</p><p>original X-Y Matrix</p><p>but you might have</p><p>another business</p><p>output added.</p><p>The significance rating is the relative ranking of outputs. If one output is rated a 10 and it is twice the</p><p>importance of a second output, the rating for the second output would be a 5. The improvements, usually</p><p>impacting the X’s, are listed and the relative impact of each item on the left is rated against its impact to</p><p>the output. The overall impact rating for one improvement is the sum of the individual impact ratings</p><p>multiplied by their respective significant rating of the output impacted. Items on the left having more</p><p>impacts on multiple outputs will have a higher overall impact rating. The cost and timing ratings are</p><p>multiplied against the overall impact rating.</p><p>p</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>multiplied against the overall impact rating.</p><p>The improvements listed with the highest overall ratings are the first to get consideration. The range of</p><p>impact ratings can be zero to seven. An impact of zero means no impact. The cost and timing ratings are</p><p>rated zero to seven. With zero being prohibitive in the cost or timing category.</p><p>631</p><p>Improvement Selection Matrix Project Outputs</p><p>Six Sigma Control Plans</p><p>P i d S d M t i f P j tPrimary and Secondary Metrics of your Project.</p><p>– List each of the Y’s across the horizontal axis</p><p>– Rate the importance of the process Y’s on a scale of 1 to 10</p><p>• 1 is not very important, 10 is critical</p><p>• The Significance rankings must match your updated X-Y Matrix</p><p>Improvement Selection Matrix</p><p>Just like when using</p><p>the FMEA, your</p><p>ratings may vary for</p><p>rankings</p><p>Impact Ratings</p><p>7 X's are removed from impacting the process output.ratings may vary for</p><p>the three Selection</p><p>Matrix categories.</p><p>Feel free to use</p><p>whatever objective</p><p>ratings you desire.</p><p>These are some</p><p>general guideline</p><p>6 Continual control and adjustment of critical X's impacting the</p><p>process output.</p><p>5 Continual control of critical X's prevents defects in the process</p><p>output from X.</p><p>4 Defect detection of the process output prevents unknown defects</p><p>from leaving the process.</p><p>3 Process inspection or testing is improved to find defects better.</p><p>general guideline</p><p>ratings, customize</p><p>them to meet your</p><p>business, just try to</p><p>standardize whatever</p><p>criteria you choose.</p><p>2 Process is improved with easier control of a critical X impacting the</p><p>process output.</p><p>1 Personnel are trained about X's impact on the process output.</p><p>0 X's have no impact on the process output.</p><p>The recommended</p><p>cost ratings from zero</p><p>to seven are here. In</p><p>many companies,</p><p>expenditures that are</p><p>not capitalized usually</p><p>are desired because</p><p>Cost to Implement Ratings</p><p>7 Improvement Costs are minimal with upfront and ongoing</p><p>expenses.</p><p>6 Improvement Costs are low and can be expensed with no capital</p><p>authorization and recurring expenses are low.</p><p>5 Improvement Costs are low and can be expensed with no capital</p><p>th i ti d i hi hthey are smaller and</p><p>are merely expensed.</p><p>Your business may</p><p>have different</p><p>strategies or need of</p><p>cash so consider your</p><p>business’ situation.</p><p>authorization and recurring expenses are higher.</p><p>4 Medium capital priority because of relative ranking of return on</p><p>investment.</p><p>3 Low capital priority because of relative ranking of return on</p><p>investment.</p><p>2 High capital and ongoing expenses make a low priority for capital</p><p>investment.</p><p>1 High capital and/or expenses without acceptable return on</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>1 investment.</p><p>0 Significant capital and ongoing expenses without alignment with</p><p>business priorities.</p><p>632</p><p>Improvement Selection Matrix (cont.)</p><p>Six Sigma Control Plans</p><p>Time to Implement Ratings</p><p>7 Less than a week to get in place and workable.</p><p>6 7 - 14 days to get in place and workable.</p><p>5 2 - 8 weeks to get the improvement in place and workable.</p><p>4 2 - 3 months to get the improvement in place and workable.</p><p>3 3 - 6 months to get the improvement in place and workable.</p><p>2 6 9 th t t th i t i l d k bl</p><p>These time ratings are ranked from zero to seven. You might wonder why something that would take</p><p>i i h i b id d M</p><p>2 6 - 9 months to get the improvement in place and workable.</p><p>1 9 - 12 months to get the improvement in place and workable.</p><p>0 Over a year to get the improvement in place and workable. All</p><p>above times include time for approvals process.</p><p>Example of Completed Solution Selection Matrix</p><p>a year or more we suggest gets a zero rating suggesting the improvement not be considered. Many</p><p>businesses have cycle times of products less than a year so improvements that long are ill</p><p>considered.</p><p>o</p><p>no</p><p>t</p><p>ke</p><p>rs</p><p>ric</p><p>h</p><p>w</p><p>at</p><p>er</p><p>ud</p><p>e</p><p>86 7 7 4214</p><p>52 7 7 2548</p><p>OVERALL</p><p>IMPACT</p><p>RATING</p><p>COST</p><p>RATING</p><p>TIME</p><p>RATING</p><p>OVERALL</p><p>RATING</p><p>O</p><p>ut</p><p>si</p><p>de</p><p>n</p><p>oi</p><p>se</p><p>s</p><p>do</p><p>in</p><p>te</p><p>rf</p><p>er</p><p>w</p><p>ith</p><p>s</p><p>pe</p><p>ak</p><p>C</p><p>of</p><p>fe</p><p>e</p><p>is</p><p>h</p><p>ot</p><p>a</p><p>nd</p><p>r</p><p>ta</p><p>st</p><p>in</p><p>g</p><p>Pl</p><p>en</p><p>ty</p><p>o</p><p>f b</p><p>ot</p><p>tle</p><p>d</p><p>w</p><p>av</p><p>ai</p><p>la</p><p>bl</p><p>e</p><p>Fo</p><p>od</p><p>c</p><p>ho</p><p>ic</p><p>es</p><p>in</p><p>cl</p><p>u</p><p>"h</p><p>ea</p><p>lth</p><p>y</p><p>ch</p><p>oi</p><p>ce</p><p>s"</p><p>Significance Rating 10 9 8 9</p><p>Potential Improvements</p><p>Impact</p><p>Rating</p><p>Impact</p><p>Rating</p><p>Impact</p><p>Rating</p><p>Impact</p><p>Rating</p><p>1 Hotel staff monitors room 2 2 6 0</p><p>2 Mgmt visits/leaves ph # 2 0 4 0</p><p>63 3 6 1134</p><p>36 5 5 900</p><p>60 3 3 540</p><p>63 5 2 630</p><p>3 Replace old coffee makers/coffee 0 7 0 0</p><p>4 Menus provided with nutrition info 0 0 0 4</p><p>5 Comp. gen. "quiet time" scheduled 6 0 0 0</p><p>6 Dietician approves menus 0 0 0 7</p><p>Improvement Selection M atrix Output</p><p>Improvements with the higher overall rating should be given first priority.</p><p>Keep in mind that long time frame capital investments etc should have</p><p>This is just an example of a completed solution selection matrix. Remember that a cost or time</p><p>rating of zero would eliminate the improvement from consideration by your project. Remember your</p><p>ratings of the solutions should involved your whole team to get their knowledge and understanding</p><p>of final priorities.</p><p>Keep in mind that long time frame capital investments, etc. should have</p><p>parallel efforts to keep delays from further occurring.</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>Again, higher overall ratings are the improvements to be considered. Do NOT forget about the</p><p>potential to run improvements in parallel. Running projects of complexity might need the experience</p><p>of a trained project manager. Often projects need to be managed with gantt charts or timelines</p><p>showing critical milestones.</p><p>633</p><p>Implementing Solutions in Your Organization</p><p>O ’ d id d</p><p>Six Sigma Control Plans</p><p>Once you’ve decided</p><p>defect reduction</p><p>solutions, you need to</p><p>plan those solutions. A</p><p>plan means more than</p><p>the</p><p>proverbial back of</p><p>the envelope solution</p><p>and should include</p><p>Implementation Plans should emphasize the need to:</p><p>– Organize the tasks and resources</p><p>– Establish realistic time frames and deadlines</p><p>– Identify actions necessary to ensure success</p><p>Components of an Implementation Plan include:</p><p>timelines, critical</p><p>milestones, project</p><p>review dates and</p><p>specific actions noted</p><p>for success in your</p><p>solution</p><p>implementation. Many</p><p>l E l MS</p><p>Components of an Implementation Plan include:</p><p>– W ork breakdown structure</p><p>– Influence strategy for priorities and resourcing</p><p>– Risk management plan</p><p>– Audit results for completion and risks.</p><p>All solutions must be part of Control Plan Document.</p><p>people use Excel or MS</p><p>Project but many</p><p>options exist to plan</p><p>your project closing</p><p>with these future</p><p>sustaining plans.</p><p>We have a plan don’t we?</p><p>What is a Control Plan?</p><p>A Control Plan is:</p><p>• W ritten summary describing systems used for monitoring/ controlling</p><p>process or product varia tion</p><p>• Document a llow ing team to forma lly document a ll control methods</p><p>used to meet project goa lused to meet project goa l</p><p>• Living document to be updated as new measurement systems and</p><p>control methods are added for continuous improvement</p><p>• Often used to crea te concise opera tor inspection sheet</p><p>• N OT a replacement of information conta ined in deta iled operating,</p><p>ma intenance, or design instructions</p><p>ESSEN TIAL ti f fi l j t t• ESSEN TIAL portion of fina l project report</p><p>– Fina l projects are organiza tiona lly dependent</p><p>• Informal or formal</p><p>– Filed as part of project track ing mechanism for organiza tion</p><p>• Track benefits</p><p>• Reference for unsusta ined results</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>634</p><p>WHO Should Create a Control Plan</p><p>Six Sigma Control Plans</p><p>Th t ki th j t!!!!The team working on the project!!!!</p><p>ANYONE who has a role in defining, executing or changing the</p><p>process:</p><p>– Associates</p><p>– Technical Experts</p><p>– Supervisors</p><p>– Managers</p><p>– Site Manager</p><p>did i</p><p>WHY Do We Need a Control Plan?</p><p>– Human Resources We did it!!</p><p>Project results need to be sustained.</p><p>• Control Plan requires operators/ engineers, managers, etc. to</p><p>follow designated control methods to guarantee product</p><p>quality throughout system</p><p>• Allows a Belt to move onto other projects!Allows a Belt to move onto other projects!</p><p>• Prevents need for constant heroes in an organization who</p><p>repeatedly solve the same problems</p><p>• Control Plans are becoming more of a customer requirement</p><p>Going for distance, not the sprint!</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>635</p><p>Control Plan Elements</p><p>Six Sigma Control Plans</p><p>The 5 elements of</p><p>Control Plan</p><p>Aligning</p><p>Documenta tion</p><p>Plan</p><p>Response Plan</p><p>Aligning</p><p>Documenta tion</p><p>Plan</p><p>Response Plan Process ow ners</p><p>accountable to</p><p>mainta in new</p><p>level of</p><p>process</p><p>The 5 elements of</p><p>a Control Plan</p><p>include the</p><p>documentation,</p><p>monitoring,</p><p>response, training</p><p>and aligning</p><p>systems and</p><p>IM PLEM EN TEDIM PLEM EN TED</p><p>Systems</p><p>& Structures</p><p>M onitoring</p><p>Plan</p><p>Tra ining</p><p>Plan</p><p>Systems</p><p>& Structures</p><p>M onitoring</p><p>Plan</p><p>Tra ining</p><p>Plan</p><p>V ifi d Fi i lV ifi d Fi i l</p><p>process</p><p>performancestructures.</p><p>Control Plan Information</p><p>Control Plans use all</p><p>IM PLEM EN TED IM PLEM EN TED</p><p>IM PROVEM EN TSIM PROVEM EN TS</p><p>Verified Financia l Verified Financia l</p><p>ImpactImpact</p><p>Control Plans use all</p><p>of the information</p><p>from the previous</p><p>phases of your project</p><p>and the defect</p><p>prevention methods</p><p>selected. Control</p><p>Plans may not be</p><p>The team develops the Control Plan by utilizing a ll ava ilable</p><p>information from the follow ing:</p><p>– Results from the M easure and Analyze Phases</p><p>– Lessons learned from similar products and processes</p><p>– Team’s know ledge of the process</p><p>– Design FM EAs</p><p>Design review sy</p><p>exciting because you</p><p>are not doing anything</p><p>new to the process</p><p>but stabilizing the</p><p>process in the future</p><p>with this document.</p><p>– Design review s</p><p>– Defect Prevention M ethods selected</p><p>Aligning</p><p>Systems</p><p>Documentation</p><p>Plan</p><p>Documentation</p><p>Plan</p><p>M onitoringM onitoring</p><p>Response PlanResponse Plan</p><p>Tra ining Systems</p><p>& Structures</p><p>M onitoring</p><p>Plan</p><p>M onitoring</p><p>Plan</p><p>a g</p><p>Plan</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>636</p><p>Training Plan</p><p>Six Sigma Control Plans</p><p>W ho/ W hat organizations require tra ining?</p><p>– Those impacted by the improvements</p><p>• People who are involved in the process</p><p>impacted by the improvement</p><p>• People who support the process impacted by</p><p>Tra ining</p><p>Plan</p><p>Tra ining</p><p>Plan</p><p>the improvement</p><p>– Those impacted by the Control Plan</p><p>• Process owners/ managers</p><p>• People who support the processes involved in the Control Plan</p><p>• People who will make changes to the process in the futureg</p><p>W ho w ill complete the tra ining?</p><p>– Immediate training</p><p>• The planning, development and execution is a</p><p>responsibility of the project team</p><p>• Typically some of the training is conducted by</p><p>Tra ining</p><p>Plan</p><p>Tra ining</p><p>Plan</p><p>yp y g y</p><p>the project team</p><p>– Qualified trainers</p><p>• Typically owned by a training department or process owner</p><p>• Those who are responsible for conducting the on-going</p><p>training must be identified</p><p>Specific training materials need developingSpecific training materials need developing.</p><p>– PowerPoint, On the Job checklist, Exercises, etc.</p><p>W hen will training be conducted?</p><p>W hat is the timeline to train everyone</p><p>on the new process(es)?</p><p>W hat will trigger ongoing training?</p><p>– New employee orientation?</p><p>– Refresher training?</p><p>Tra ining</p><p>Plan</p><p>Tra ining</p><p>Plan</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>– Part of the response plan when monitoring shows</p><p>performance degrading?</p><p>637</p><p>Training Plan (cont.)</p><p>Six Sigma Control Plans</p><p>Tra ining Plan Outline</p><p>I t ti i t</p><p>Tra ining</p><p>Plan</p><p>Tra ining</p><p>Plan</p><p>Training Module</p><p>W ho W ill Create</p><p>Modules</p><p>Schedule for</p><p>Training Modules</p><p>Completion</p><p>W ho W ill be</p><p>Trained</p><p>Schedule for</p><p>Training Trainer(s)</p><p>Integration into</p><p>Ongoing New</p><p>Employee</p><p>Training</p><p>Final Location of</p><p>Employee</p><p>Manuals</p><p>Documentation Plan</p><p>Documentation is necessary to ensure that what DocumentationDocumentation</p><p>PlPl Documenta tion Documenta tion y</p><p>has been learned from the project is shared and</p><p>institutionalized:</p><p>– Used to aid implementation of solutions</p><p>– Used for on-going training</p><p>PlanPlan PlanPlan</p><p>This is often the actual Final Report some organizations use.</p><p>Documentation must be kept current to be useful</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>638</p><p>Documentation Plan (cont.)</p><p>Six Sigma Control Plans</p><p>Items to be included in the Documentation Plan:</p><p>– Process documentation</p><p>• Updated Process M aps/ flow charts</p><p>• Procedures (SOP’s)</p><p>Documenta tion</p><p>Plan</p><p>Documenta tion</p><p>Plan</p><p>• Procedures (SOP s)</p><p>• FM EA</p><p>– Control Plan documentation</p><p>• Tra ining manuals</p><p>• M onitoring plan—process management charts, reports, g p p g , p ,</p><p>sops</p><p>• Response plan—FM EA</p><p>• Systems and structures—job descriptions, performance</p><p>management objectives</p><p>Assigning responsibility for Documentation Plan:</p><p>– Responsibility at implementation</p><p>• Black Belt ensures all documents are current</p><p>t h d ff</p><p>Documentation</p><p>Plan</p><p>Documentation</p><p>Plan</p><p>at hand off</p><p>• Black Belt ensures there is a process to modify</p><p>documentation as the process changes in place</p><p>• Black Belt ensures there is a process in place to review</p><p>documentation on regular basis for currency/ accuracy</p><p>– Responsibility for ongoing process (organizationally based)p y g g p ( g y )</p><p>• Plan must outline who is responsible for making</p><p>updates/ modifications to documentation as they occur</p><p>• Plan must outline who is responsible to review documents—</p><p>ensuring currency/ accuracy of documentation</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>639</p><p>Documentation Plan (cont.)</p><p>Six Sigma Control Plans</p><p>Documentation Plan Outline Documenta tion</p><p>Plan</p><p>Documenta tion</p><p>Plan</p><p>It I di t Update/ R iDocument Items</p><p>Necessary</p><p>Immediate</p><p>Responsibility</p><p>and</p><p>manageable work area. The five</p><p>“S” ‘S i i' t t</p><p>5S - Workplace Organization</p><p>• 5S means the workplace is</p><p>clean, there is a place for</p><p>everything and everything</p><p>is in its place“S” are: ‘Seiri' means to separate</p><p>needed tools, parts, and</p><p>instructions from unneeded</p><p>materials and to remove the</p><p>latter. 'Seiton' means to neatly</p><p>arrange and identify parts and</p><p>tools for ease of use. 'Seiso'</p><p>means to conduct a cleanup</p><p>is in its place.</p><p>• 5S is the starting point for</p><p>implementing</p><p>improvements to a process.</p><p>• To ensure your gains are</p><p>sustainable, you must start</p><p>with a firm foundation.</p><p>• Its strength is contingent</p><p>upon the employees andmeans to conduct a cleanup</p><p>campaign. 'Seiketsu' means to</p><p>conduct seiri, seiton, and seiso at</p><p>frequent, indeed daily, intervals to</p><p>maintain a workplace in perfect</p><p>upon the employees and</p><p>company being committed</p><p>to maintaining it.</p><p>condition. 'Shitsuke' means to form the habit of always following the first four S’s.</p><p>On the next page the Japanese words are translated to English words. Simply put, 5S means the</p><p>workplace is clean there is a place for everything and everything is in its place The 5S will createworkplace is clean, there is a place for everything and everything is in its place. The 5S will create</p><p>a workplace that is suitable for and will stimulate high quality and high productivity work.</p><p>Additionally it will make the workplace more comfortable and a place in which you can take pride.</p><p>Developed in Japan, this method assume no effective and quality job can be done without clean</p><p>and safe environment and without behavioral rules.</p><p>The 5S allow you to set up a well adapted and functional work environment, ruled by simple yet</p><p>effective rules 5S deployment is done in a logical and progressive way The first three S’s are</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>effective rules. 5S deployment is done in a logical and progressive way. The first three S s are</p><p>workplace actions, while the last two are sustaining and progress actions.</p><p>It is recommended to start implementing 5S in a well chosen pilot workspace or pilot process and</p><p>spread to the others step by step.</p><p>563</p><p>5S Translation - Workplace Organization</p><p>Lean Controls</p><p>Step Japanese Litera l Transla tion English</p><p>Step 1 : Seiri Clearing Up Sorting</p><p>Step 2: Seiton Organizing Straightening</p><p>Step Japanese Litera l Transla tion English</p><p>Step 1 : Seiri Clearing Up Sorting</p><p>Step 2: Seiton Organizing StraighteningStep 2 : Seiton Organizing Straightening</p><p>Step 3 : Seiso Cleaning Shining</p><p>Step 4 : Seketsu Standardizing Standardizing</p><p>Step 2 : Seiton Organizing Straightening</p><p>Step 3 : Seiso Cleaning Shining</p><p>Step 4 : Seketsu Standardizing Standardizing</p><p>Step 5 : Shitsuke Training & Discipline SustainingStep 5 : Shitsuke Training & Discipline Sustaining</p><p>Focus on using the English w ords, much easier to remember.</p><p>The English translations are:</p><p>Seiri = Sorting</p><p>Eliminate everything not required for the current work, keeping only the bare essentials.</p><p>Seiton = Straightening</p><p>Arrange items in a way that they are easily visible and accessible.</p><p>Seiso = Shining</p><p>Clean everything and find ways to keep it clean. Make cleaning a part of your everyday</p><p>work.</p><p>Seketsu = Standardizing</p><p>Create rules by which the first three S’s are maintained.</p><p>Shitsuke = Sustaining</p><p>Keep 5S activities from unraveling</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>564</p><p>The first stage of 5S is to</p><p>SORTING - Decide what is needed.</p><p>Lean Controls</p><p>The first stage of 5S is to</p><p>organize the work area,</p><p>leaving only the tools</p><p>and materials necessary</p><p>to perform daily</p><p>activities. When “sorting”</p><p>is well implemented,</p><p>communication between</p><p>Definition:</p><p>– To sort out necessary and</p><p>unnecessary items.</p><p>– To store often used items at</p><p>the work area, infrequently</p><p>used items away from the</p><p>work area and dispose of</p><p>workers is improved and</p><p>product quality and</p><p>productivity are</p><p>increased.</p><p>work area and dispose of</p><p>items that are not needed.</p><p>W hy:</p><p>– Removes waste.</p><p>– Safer work area.</p><p>– Gains space.</p><p>– Easier to visualize the</p><p>process.</p><p>Things to remember</p><p>• Start in one area, then sort</p><p>through everything.</p><p>• Discuss removal of items with all</p><p>persons involved.</p><p>• Use appropriate</p><p>decontamination, environmental,</p><p>and safety procedures.</p><p>It th t t b d</p><p>Things to remember</p><p>• Start in one area, then sort</p><p>through everything.</p><p>• Discuss removal of items with all</p><p>persons involved.</p><p>• Use appropriate</p><p>decontamination, environmental,</p><p>and safety procedures.</p><p>• Items that cannot be removed</p><p>A Method for Sorting</p><p>• Items that cannot be removed</p><p>immediately should be tagged</p><p>for later removal.</p><p>• if necessary, use movers and</p><p>riggers.</p><p>Items that cannot be removed</p><p>immediately should be tagged</p><p>for later removal.</p><p>• if necessary, use movers and</p><p>riggers.</p><p>Unknow n Useless</p><p>Item</p><p>Useful</p><p>5S usually begins with a</p><p>great initial cleaning,</p><p>where sorting out the</p><p>items is a highlight. For</p><p>each item, it must be</p><p>stated if it is useful,</p><p>useless or undetermined.</p><p>UselessSorting</p><p>Keep &</p><p>M onitor</p><p>Keep &</p><p>Store</p><p>Useful</p><p>ABC</p><p>For some items, the</p><p>statement may be touchy,</p><p>as nobody seems to know</p><p>if they are really useful or</p><p>not, and what is their</p><p>frequency of use.</p><p>Always start with the</p><p>DisposeABC</p><p>Storage</p><p>Always start with the</p><p>easiest items to classify.</p><p>Difficulty should be no</p><p>excuse, go for it, starting with easiest: Sort each item according to three categories:</p><p>1. Useful 2. Useless 3. Unknown</p><p>The two first categories are problem to sort as their status is clear. Dispose of immediately any</p><p>useless items, because they just clutter the workspace, lead to loss of time, confusion and poor</p><p>quality. For items in the unknown category or the frequency of use is unclear, keep them where</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>quality. For items in the unknown category or the frequency of use is unclear, keep them where</p><p>they are for a predetermined period of time and if found that they are not used dispose of them.</p><p>For items that are useful, there is also a method for determining how and where they should be</p><p>stored to help you achieve a clean and orderly workplace.</p><p>565</p><p>A Method for Sorting</p><p>Lean Controls</p><p>A</p><p>B</p><p>CFr</p><p>eq</p><p>ue</p><p>nc</p><p>y</p><p>of</p><p>U</p><p>se</p><p>A</p><p>B</p><p>C</p><p>A</p><p>B</p><p>CFr</p><p>eq</p><p>ue</p><p>nc</p><p>y</p><p>of</p><p>U</p><p>se</p><p>Use this graph as a genera l guide</p><p>for deciding w here to store items</p><p>a long w ith the table below .</p><p>Frequency of</p><p>Utilization Class</p><p>Keep within arms</p><p>reach</p><p>Keep in local</p><p>location</p><p>Keep in remote</p><p>location</p><p>Daily or several times</p><p>a day A YES MAYBE NO</p><p>Weekly B MAYBE YES NO</p><p>CF</p><p>Distance</p><p>CCF</p><p>Distance</p><p>After you have determined the usefulness of an item, set three classes for determining where to store an</p><p>item based on the frequency of use and the distance to travel to get the item. “A” is for things which are</p><p>to be kept close at hand, because the frequency of use is high. “B” is if the item is used infrequently but</p><p>approximately on a weekly basis. Do no put it on your work surface, rather keep in easy walking</p><p>Weekly B MAYBE YES NO</p><p>Monthly or quarterly C NO NO YES</p><p>distance, i.e. on a bookshelf or in a nearby cabinet, usually in the same room you are in. For “C” items it</p><p>is acceptable to store in a somewhat remote place, meaning a few minutes walk away.</p><p>By rigorously applying the sort action and the prescribed method, you will find that the remainder of the</p><p>5S items will be quite easy to accomplish. It is very difficult to order a large number of items in a given</p><p>space and the amount of cleaning increases with the number of items. Your workplace should only</p><p>contain those items needed on a daily to weekly basis to perform your job.</p><p>STRAIGHTENING – Arranging Necessary Items</p><p>The second stage of</p><p>5S involves the</p><p>orderly arrangement</p><p>of needed items so</p><p>they are easy to use</p><p>Definition:</p><p>– To arrange all necessary items.</p><p>– To have a designated place</p><p>for everything.</p><p>– A place for everything andand accessible for</p><p>Update/</p><p>Modification</p><p>Responsibility</p><p>Review</p><p>Responsibility</p><p>Monitoring Plan</p><p>Purpose of a Monitoring Plan:</p><p>M onitoring</p><p>Plan</p><p>M onitoring</p><p>Plan</p><p>Purpose of a Monitoring Plan:</p><p>– Assures gains are achieved and sustained</p><p>– Provides insight for future process improvement activities</p><p>Development of a Monitoring Plan:</p><p>– Belt is responsible for the development of the monitoring plan</p><p>– Team members will help to develop the plan– Team members will help to develop the plan</p><p>– Stakeholders must be consulted</p><p>– Organizations with financial tracking would monitor results.</p><p>Sustaining the Monitoring Plan:</p><p>– Functional managers will be responsible for adherence to the</p><p>monitoring plan</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>g p</p><p>• They must be trained on how to do this</p><p>• They must be made accountable for adherence</p><p>640</p><p>Monitoring Plan (cont.)</p><p>Six Sigma Control Plans</p><p>Tests:</p><p>– W hen to Sample</p><p>• After training</p><p>• Regular intervals</p><p>M onitoring</p><p>Plan</p><p>M onitoring</p><p>Plan</p><p>• Random intervals (often in auditing sense)</p><p>– How to Sample</p><p>– How to Measure</p><p>I knew I should have paid more attention!</p><p>Statistica l Process Control:</p><p>– Control Charts</p><p>• Posted in area where data collected</p><p>M onitoring</p><p>Plan</p><p>M onitoring</p><p>Plan</p><p>• Plot data points real time</p><p>– Act on Out of Control Response with guidelines from the</p><p>Out of Control Action Plan (OCAP).</p><p>– Record actions taken to achieve in-control results.</p><p>• Notes impacting performance on chart should be encouraged</p><p>– Establishing new limits</p><p>• Based on signals that process performance has changed</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>641</p><p>Response Plan</p><p>Six Sigma Control Plans</p><p>FM EA is a great tool to use for the M onitoring Plan</p><p>Process</p><p>Potential</p><p>F il M d Potential S</p><p>C</p><p>l Potential O Current D R R d Responsible T k S O D R</p><p>M onitoring</p><p>Plan</p><p>M onitoring</p><p>Plan</p><p># Function</p><p>(Step)</p><p>Failure Modes</p><p>(process</p><p>defects)</p><p>Failure Effects</p><p>(Y's)</p><p>E</p><p>V</p><p>l</p><p>a</p><p>s</p><p>Causes of</p><p>Failure (X's)</p><p>C</p><p>C</p><p>Process</p><p>Controls</p><p>E</p><p>T</p><p>P</p><p>N</p><p>Recommend</p><p>Actions</p><p>p</p><p>Person &</p><p>Target Date</p><p>Taken</p><p>Actions E</p><p>V</p><p>C</p><p>C</p><p>E</p><p>T</p><p>P</p><p>N</p><p>1</p><p>2</p><p>3</p><p>4</p><p>5</p><p>6</p><p>– Allow s process manager and those involved in the process</p><p>to see the entire process and how everyone contributes to a</p><p>defect free product/ service.</p><p>– Provides the means to k eep the document current—</p><p>reassessing RPN s as the process changes</p><p>Monitoring Plan</p><p>Check Lists/ M atrices</p><p>K it t h k– Key items to check</p><p>– Decision criteria; decision road map</p><p>– Multi-variable tables</p><p>Visual M anagement</p><p>Alerts or signals to trigger action</p><p>M onitoring</p><p>Plan</p><p>M onitoring</p><p>Plan</p><p>– Alerts or signals to trigger action.</p><p>• Empty bins being returned to when need stock replenished</p><p>• Red/ yellow/ green reports to signal process performance</p><p>– Can be audible also.</p><p>– 5S is necessary for Visual Management</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>642</p><p>Response Plan</p><p>Six Sigma Control Plans</p><p>Response Plans — outline process(es) to follow when</p><p>there is a defect or Out of Control from monitoring:</p><p>– Out of control point on Control Chart</p><p>– Non random behavior within Control Limits in</p><p>Control Chart</p><p>Response PlanResponse Plan</p><p>– Condition/ variable proven to produce defects present in process</p><p>– Check sheet failure</p><p>– Automation failure</p><p>Response to poor process results are a must in training.</p><p>Response Plans are living documents updated w ith</p><p>new information as it becomes ava ilable.</p><p>Components of Response Plan: Response PlanResponse Plan</p><p>– The triggers for a response</p><p>• W hat are the failure modes to check for?</p><p>• Usually monitor the highest risk X's in the process</p><p>– The recommended response for the failure mode</p><p>– The responsibilities for responding to the failure mode</p><p>D t ti f R Pl b i f ll d i f il d– Documentation of Response Plan being followed in a failure mode</p><p>– Detailed information on the conditions surrounding the failure</p><p>mode</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>643</p><p>Response Plan – Abnormality Report</p><p>Six Sigma Control Plans</p><p>• Deta iled documentation</p><p>w hen fa ilure modes</p><p>occur.</p><p>• Provide a method for</p><p>Process</p><p>Metric</p><p>Signal</p><p>Situation Codeur</p><p>re</p><p>nt</p><p>S</p><p>itu</p><p>at</p><p>io</p><p>n</p><p>Response PlanResponse Plan</p><p>on-going continuous</p><p>improvement.</p><p>• Reinforce</p><p>commitment to</p><p>eliminating defects.</p><p>Situation Code</p><p>Detailed Situation</p><p>Date</p><p>Code of Cause</p><p>Corrective Action</p><p>C</p><p>u</p><p>In</p><p>ve</p><p>st</p><p>ig</p><p>at</p><p>io</p><p>n</p><p>of</p><p>C</p><p>au</p><p>se</p><p>• Fits w ith ISO 9000 standard of</p><p>having a CAR or Corrective</p><p>Action Request.</p><p>• M ethod to collect frequency of</p><p>corrective actions.</p><p>Who To Be Involved</p><p>What To Be Done</p><p>Date for completion of analysis</p><p>Date for implementation of permanent preventionR</p><p>oo</p><p>t C</p><p>au</p><p>se</p><p>A</p><p>na</p><p>ly</p><p>si</p><p>s</p><p>Aligning Systems and Structures</p><p>Systems and structures are the basis for allowing</p><p>people to change their behaviors permanently:</p><p>– Performance goals/ objectives</p><p>– Policies/ procedures</p><p>– Job descriptions</p><p>Incentive compensation</p><p>Aligning</p><p>Systems</p><p>& Structures</p><p>Aligning</p><p>Systems</p><p>& Structures</p><p>– Incentive compensation</p><p>– Incentive programs, contests, etc</p><p>There are long- and short-term stra tegies</p><p>for a lignment of systems and structures.</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>644</p><p>Aligning Systems and Structures (cont.)</p><p>Six Sigma Control Plans</p><p>• Get rid of measurements that do not align with</p><p>desired behaviors</p><p>• Get rid of multiple measures for the same</p><p>desired behaviors</p><p>Aligning</p><p>Systems</p><p>& Structures</p><p>Aligning</p><p>Systems</p><p>& Structures</p><p>desired behaviors</p><p>• Implement measures that align with desired behaviors currently not</p><p>motivated by incentives</p><p>• Change management must consider your process changes and howChange management must consider your process changes and how</p><p>the process will respond?</p><p>• Are the hourly incentives hurting your chance of success?</p><p>Project Sign Off</p><p>Best method to assure acceptance of Control Plan is</p><p>having supervisors and management for the areahaving supervisors and management for the area</p><p>involved.</p><p>– Meeting for a summary report</p><p>– Specific changes to the process highlighted</p><p>Aligning</p><p>Systems</p><p>& Structures</p><p>Aligning</p><p>Systems</p><p>& Structures</p><p>– Information where Control Plan is filed</p><p>h l l</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>Now that’s a Control Plan!</p><p>645</p><p>At this point, you should be able to:</p><p>Six Sigma Control Plans</p><p>� Identify all 5 phases of the Six Sigma methodology</p><p>� Identify at least 3 tools from each phase</p><p>� Show progress on your ongoing project</p><p>Now for the last few questions to ask if you have been progressing on a real world project while</p><p>taking this learning. First, has your project made success in the primary metric without</p><p>compromising your secondary metrics? Second, have you been faithfully updating your metric</p><p>charts and keeping your process owner and project champion updated on your team’s activities. If</p><p>not, then start NOW.</p><p>You have now completed Control Phase – Six Sigma Control Plans.</p><p>Remember a basic change management idea you learned in the Define Phase. If you get</p><p>involvement of team members who work in the process and keep the project Champion and</p><p>Process Owner updated as to results, then you have the greatest chance of success.</p><p>Notes</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>646</p><p>Lean Six Sigma</p><p>Black Belt Training</p><p>Control Phase</p><p>Wrap Up and Action Items</p><p>Control Phase</p><p>Wrap Up and Action Items</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>647</p><p>Wrap Up and Action Items</p><p>Control Phase Overview—The Goal</p><p>The goal of the Control Phase is to:</p><p>• Assess the final process capability.</p><p>• Revisit Lean with an eye for sustaining the project• Revisit Lean with an eye for sustaining the project.</p><p>• Evaluate methods for defect prevention.</p><p>• Explore various</p><p>methods to monitor process using SPC.</p><p>• Implement a Control Plan.</p><p>Gooooaaallllll!!</p><p>Organizational Change</p><p>• Accept responsibility</p><p>M it i</p><p>Each Each ““ playerplayer”” in the process has a role in in the process has a role in</p><p>SUSTAIN IN G project success achieved.SUSTAIN IN G project success achieved.</p><p>• Monitoring</p><p>• Responding</p><p>• Managing</p><p>• Embracing change & continuous learning</p><p>• Sharing best practices</p><p>• Potential for horizontal replication or expansion of results</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>• Potential for horizontal replication or expansion of results</p><p>648</p><p>Control Phase—The Roadblocks</p><p>Wrap Up and Action Items</p><p>Look for the potential roadblocks and plan to address them</p><p>before they become problems:</p><p>– Lack of project sign off</p><p>– Team members are not involved in Control Plan design</p><p>– Management does not have knowledge on monitoring and g g g</p><p>reacting needs</p><p>– Financial benefits are not tracked and integrated into</p><p>business</p><p>– Lack of buy in of process operators or staff</p><p>DMAIC Roadmap</p><p>n/ w</p><p>ne</p><p>r</p><p>n/ w</p><p>ne</p><p>r</p><p>Identify Problem Area</p><p>Assess Stability Capability and Measurement Systems</p><p>Determine Appropriate Project Focus</p><p>Estimate COPQ</p><p>Establish Team</p><p>C</p><p>ha</p><p>m</p><p>pi</p><p>o</p><p>Pr</p><p>oc</p><p>es</p><p>s</p><p>O</p><p>w</p><p>D</p><p>ef</p><p>in</p><p>e</p><p>ur</p><p>e</p><p>Identify Problem Area</p><p>Assess Stability Capability and Measurement Systems</p><p>Determine Appropriate Project Focus</p><p>Estimate COPQ</p><p>Establish Team</p><p>C</p><p>ha</p><p>m</p><p>pi</p><p>o</p><p>Pr</p><p>oc</p><p>es</p><p>s</p><p>O</p><p>w</p><p>D</p><p>ef</p><p>in</p><p>e</p><p>ur</p><p>e</p><p>Assess Stability, Capability, and Measurement Systems</p><p>Identify and Prioritize All X’s</p><p>Prove/ Disprove Impact X’s Have On Problem</p><p>Identify, Prioritize, Select Solutions Control or Eliminate X’s Causing Problems</p><p>M</p><p>ea</p><p>su</p><p>A</p><p>na</p><p>ly</p><p>ze</p><p>ov</p><p>e</p><p>Assess Stability, Capability, and Measurement Systems</p><p>Identify and Prioritize All X’s</p><p>Prove/ Disprove Impact X’s Have On Problem</p><p>Identify, Prioritize, Select Solutions Control or Eliminate X’s Causing Problems</p><p>M</p><p>ea</p><p>su</p><p>A</p><p>na</p><p>ly</p><p>ze</p><p>ov</p><p>e</p><p>Implement Solutions to Control or Eliminate X’s Causing Problems</p><p>Implement Control Plan to Ensure Problem Doesn’t Return</p><p>Verify Financial Impact</p><p>Im</p><p>pr</p><p>C</p><p>on</p><p>tro</p><p>l</p><p>Implement Solutions to Control or Eliminate X’s Causing Problems</p><p>Implement Control Plan to Ensure Problem Doesn’t Return</p><p>Verify Financial Impact</p><p>Im</p><p>pr</p><p>C</p><p>on</p><p>tro</p><p>l</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>649</p><p>Control Phase</p><p>Wrap Up and Action Items</p><p>Improvement Selected</p><p>Develop Training Plan</p><p>Implement Training Plan</p><p>Develop Documentation Plan</p><p>Implement Documentation Plan</p><p>Improvement Selected</p><p>Develop Training Plan</p><p>Implement Training Plan</p><p>Develop Documentation Plan</p><p>Implement Documentation Plan</p><p>Develop Monitoring Plan</p><p>Implement Monitoring Plan</p><p>Develop Response Plan</p><p>Implement Response Plan</p><p>Develop Plan to Align Systems and Structures</p><p>Develop Monitoring Plan</p><p>Implement Monitoring Plan</p><p>Develop Response Plan</p><p>Implement Response Plan</p><p>Develop Plan to Align Systems and Structures</p><p>Go to Next Project</p><p>Align Systems and Structures</p><p>Verify Financial Impact</p><p>Go to Next Project</p><p>Align Systems and Structures</p><p>Verify Financial Impact</p><p>Control Phase Checklist</p><p>Control Questions</p><p>Step One: Process Enhancement And Control</p><p>Results</p><p>• How do the results of the improvement(s) match the requirements of the business</p><p>case and improvement goals?</p><p>• What are the vital few X’s?</p><p>• How will you control or redesign these X’s?</p><p>• Is there a process control plan in place?</p><p>• Has the control plan been handed off to the process owner?</p><p>Step Two: Capability Analysis for X and Y</p><p>Process Capability</p><p>• How are you monitoring the Y’s?</p><p>Step Three: Standardization And Continuous Improvement</p><p>• How are you going to ensure that this problem does not return?</p><p>• Is the learning transferable across the business?Is the learning transferable across the business?</p><p>• What is the action plan for spreading the best practice?</p><p>• Is there a project documentation file?</p><p>• How is this referenced in process procedures and product drawings?</p><p>• What is the mechanism to ensure this is not reinvented in the future?</p><p>Step Four: Document what you have learned</p><p>• Is there an updated FMEA?</p><p>• Is the control plan fully documented and implemented?</p><p>• What are the financial implications?</p><p>• Are there any spin-off projects?</p><p>• What lessons have you learned?</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>y</p><p>General Questions</p><p>• Are there any issues/barriers preventing the completion of the project?</p><p>• Do the Champion, the Belt and Finance all agree that this project is complete?</p><p>650</p><p>Planning for Action</p><p>Wrap Up and Action Items</p><p>Finalize Key Input Variables (KPIV) to meet goal</p><p>Process map of improved process</p><p>Implement change across project team</p><p>Calculate benefits for breakthrough</p><p>Test validation plan for a specific time</p><p>HOWW HY N OTW HYW HENW HOW HAT</p><p>Finalize Key Input Variables (KPIV) to meet goal</p><p>Process map of improved process</p><p>Implement change across project team</p><p>Calculate benefits for breakthrough</p><p>Test validation plan for a specific time</p><p>HOWW HY N OTW HYW HENW HOW HAT</p><p>Knowledge transfer between Belt, PO, and team members</p><p>Implementation plan for effective procedures</p><p>Mistake proofing plan for inputs or outputs</p><p>Chart a plan to accomplish the desired state of the culture</p><p>Control plan for inputs</p><p>Control plan for output</p><p>Prioritize risks of output failure</p><p>Knowledge transfer between Belt, PO, and team members</p><p>Implementation plan for effective procedures</p><p>Mistake proofing plan for inputs or outputs</p><p>Chart a plan to accomplish the desired state of the culture</p><p>Control plan for inputs</p><p>Control plan for output</p><p>Prioritize risks of output failure</p><p>Lean project control plan</p><p>Knowledge sharing between businesses and divisions</p><p>Lean project control plan</p><p>Knowledge sharing between businesses and divisions</p><p>Show improvement in RPN through action items</p><p>Complete RPN assessment with revised frequency and controls</p><p>Finalize problem solving strategy</p><p>Identify actual versus apparent Cpk</p><p>Establish continuous or attribute metrics for Cpk</p><p>Show improvement in RPN through action items</p><p>Complete RPN assessment with revised frequency and controls</p><p>Finalize problem solving strategy</p><p>Identify actual versus apparent Cpk</p><p>Establish continuous or attribute metrics for Cpk</p><p>Summary</p><p>Repeat same process for secondary metricsRepeat same process for secondary metrics</p><p>At this point you should:At this point, you should:</p><p>• Have a clear understanding of the specific deliverables to complete</p><p>your project.</p><p>• Have started to develop a project plan to meet the deliverablesHave started to develop a project plan to meet the deliverables.</p><p>• Have identified ways to deal with potential roadblocks.</p><p>• Be ready to apply the Six Sigma method on your NEXT project.</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>651</p><p>Wrap Up and Action Items</p><p>It’s a Wrap</p><p>Congratulations you</p><p>have completedhave completed</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma</p><p>Black BeltBlack Belt</p><p>Training!!!</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>652</p><p>Lean Six Sigma</p><p>Black Belt Training</p><p>Control Phase</p><p>Quiz</p><p>Control Phase</p><p>Quiz</p><p>Now we will see what you have retained from the Control Phase of the course. Please answer</p><p>these questions to the best of your ability without referencing the text. The answers are in the</p><p>Appendix. Please check your answers against the answers provided and review the sections in</p><p>the Control Phase where your retention of the knowledge is less than you desire.</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>653</p><p>Control Phase Quiz</p><p>1. Which statement is true about the steepest ascent Experimental Design? (check all that p p g (</p><p>apply)</p><p>A. It finds the optimum spot within the original design space.</p><p>B. It attempts to find the optimum region outside the original design space.</p><p>C. The design works best when known curvature exists.</p><p>D. The design works best when 5 or more factors are significant from the screening</p><p>design.</p><p>E. The design finds the optimum</p><p>spot within the original design space if curvature was</p><p>found previouslyfound previously.</p><p>2. If the Belt has found a good, statistically significant model from the last Full Factorial</p><p>Design, what is the main reason a steepest ascent design be considered in the project?</p><p>A. 4 factors were found to be statistically significant.</p><p>B. The desired process output was not yet found within the original design space.</p><p>C. The project target was achieved but the project wants to further improve the process.</p><p>D. The DOE indicated curvature because Center Points were included and the local, ,</p><p>desired maximum was within the original design space.</p><p>3. Advanced Capability Analysis for defects per unit is not possible within MINITABTM.</p><p>True False</p><p>4. Process Capability is discussed in the Control Phase. Why is Process Capability</p><p>considered in the Control Phase of a Six Sigma project?</p><p>A Process Capability is a way of predicting future performance when a stable processA. Process Capability is a way of predicting future performance when a stable process</p><p>exists.</p><p>B. Special Causes reduce Predictability and Process Capability measures Process</p><p>Predictability relative to specifications.</p><p>C. Process Capability uses the same equations for normal and non-normal processes.</p><p>D. If the process is non-normal the type of distribution must be remembered when</p><p>monitoring a process in the Control Phase. This type of Non-normal Distribution must</p><p>be known to run a proper Process Capability Analysis.p p p y y</p><p>5. The Lean toolbox including items such as 5S, Visual Factory management and Kanbans</p><p>can best be described to ________ a process in the Control Phase.</p><p>A. remove labor for</p><p>B. overly lengthen the Six Sigma project for</p><p>C. confuse</p><p>D. stabilize</p><p>6. How does the idea of MUDA from Lean Principles best fit with the Six Sigma</p><p>methodology?</p><p>A. MUDA means waste which is indicating defects are occurring in the process.</p><p>B. Lean is Six Sigma that originated in SE Asia.</p><p>C. MUDA is an abbreviation for Six Sigma tools.</p><p>D. MUDA is the technique of finding the best practices.</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>7. Kaizens or kaikakus are examples of six sigma projects?</p><p>True False</p><p>654</p><p>Control Phase Quiz</p><p>8. If excess inventory is one reason for Special Causes in the Six Sigma project, which best</p><p>it i L P i i l h l i th P C bilit d t i bilit f thitem in Lean Principles can help improve the Process Capability and sustainability of the</p><p>project?</p><p>A. Kanban</p><p>B. SPC</p><p>C. 5S</p><p>D. Value Stream Mapping</p><p>E. Operator support</p><p>9. Kanbans work best with pull systems for determining which products or services are</p><p>produced?</p><p>True False</p><p>10. __________ (fill in the blank) are signals telling a process to process a product or</p><p>service.</p><p>A. Kaizen</p><p>B K bB. Kanban</p><p>C. Andon</p><p>D. Poka-Yoke</p><p>E. Gemba</p><p>11. Since Kanbans are used to control how much inventory exists, it is a quick fix to improve</p><p>the inventory.</p><p>True False</p><p>12. Which are examples of Defect Prevention to consider in your execution of the Control</p><p>Phase of your project? (check all that apply)</p><p>A. Poka-Yoke or Mistake Proofing</p><p>B. Monte Carlo Simulation</p><p>C. FMEA</p><p>D. Robust product design</p><p>E N ti t ifi ti li it f tE. Negotiate new specification limits from customers</p><p>13. Which items listed below will cause tolerance specification limits to tighten for an input</p><p>statistically affecting the output of interest. (check all that apply)</p><p>A. A gauge with a worsening precision.</p><p>B. The measuring instrument for the output has improving precision.</p><p>C. Other unknown significant Noise factors are increasingly varying.</p><p>D. The input has a new automated controller to minimize variation the input from the p p</p><p>desired setting.</p><p>14. Every process has causes of variation commonly known as: (check all that apply)</p><p>A. Common</p><p>B. Insignificant</p><p>C. Special</p><p>D. Uneducated</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>15. SPC is an excellent tool for telling us why a process is exhibiting Special Cause</p><p>variation.</p><p>True False</p><p>655</p><p>Glossary</p><p>Affinity Diagram - A technique for organizing individual pieces of information into groups or broader categories.</p><p>ANOVA - Analysis of Variance – A statistical test for identifying significant differences between process or</p><p>system treatments or conditions. It is done by comparing the variances around the means of the conditions</p><p>being compared.</p><p>Attribute Data - Data which on one of a set of discrete values such as pass or fail, yes or no.</p><p>Average - Also called the mean, it is the arithmetic average of all of the sample values. It is calculated by adding</p><p>all of the sample values together and dividing by the number of elements (n) in the sampleall of the sample values together and dividing by the number of elements (n) in the sample.</p><p>Bar Chart - A graphical method which depicts how data fall into different categories.</p><p>Black Belt - An individual who receives approximately four weeks training in DMAIC, analytical problem solving,</p><p>and change management methods. A Black Belt is a full time six sigma team leader solving problems under the</p><p>direction of a Champion.</p><p>Breakthrough Improvement - A rate of improvement at or near 70% over baseline performance of the as-is g p p p</p><p>process characteristic.</p><p>Capability - A comparison of the required operation width of a process or system to its actual performance</p><p>width. Expressed as a percentage (yield), a defect rate (dpm, dpmo,), an index (Cp, Cpk, Pp, Ppk), or as a</p><p>sigma score (Z).</p><p>Cause and Effect Diagram - Fishbone Diagram - A pictorial diagram in the shape of a fishbone showing all</p><p>possible variables that could affect a given process output measure.</p><p>Central Tendency - A measure of the point about which a group of values is clustered; two measures of central</p><p>tendency are the mean, and the median.</p><p>Champion -A Champion recognizes, defines, assigns and supports the successful completion of six sigma</p><p>projects; they are accountable for the results of the project and the business roadmap to achieve six sigma</p><p>within their span of control.</p><p>Characteristic A process input or output which can be measured and monitoredCharacteristic - A process input or output which can be measured and monitored.</p><p>Common Causes of Variation - Those sources of variability in a process which are truly random, i.e., inherent</p><p>in the process itself.</p><p>Complexity -The level of difficulty to build, solve or understand something based on the number of inputs,</p><p>interactions and uncertainty involved.</p><p>Control Chart - The most powerful tool of statistical process control. It consists of a run chart, together with p p , g</p><p>statistically determined upper and lower control limits and a centerline.</p><p>Control Limits - Upper and lower bounds in a control chart that are determined by the process itself. They can</p><p>be used to detect special or common causes of variation. They are usually set at ±3 standard deviations from</p><p>the central tendency.</p><p>Correlation Coefficient - A measure of the linear relationship between two variables.</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>Cost of Poor Quality (COPQ) - The costs associated with any activity that is not doing the right thing right the</p><p>first time. It is the financial qualification any waste that is not integral to the product or service which your</p><p>company provides.</p><p>656</p><p>Glossary</p><p>CP - A capability measure defined as the ratio of the specification width to short-term process performance</p><p>width.</p><p>CPk -. An adjusted short-term capability index that reduces the capability score in proportion to the offset of the</p><p>process center from the specification target.</p><p>Critical to Quality (CTQ) - Any characteristic that is critical to the perceived quality of the product, process or</p><p>system. See Significant Y.</p><p>Critical X - An input to a process or system that exerts a significant influence on any one or all of the key</p><p>foutputs of a process.</p><p>Customer - Anyone who uses or consumes a product or service, whether internal or external</p><p>to the providing</p><p>organization or provider.</p><p>Cycle Time - The total amount of elapsed time expended from the time a task, product or service is started</p><p>until it is completed.</p><p>Defect - An output of a process that does not meet a defined specification requirement or desire such as timeDefect - An output of a process that does not meet a defined specification, requirement or desire such as time,</p><p>length, color, finish, quantity, temperature etc.</p><p>Defective - A unit of product or service that contains at least one defect.</p><p>Deployment (Six Sigma) - The planning, launch, training and implementation management of a six sigma</p><p>initiative within a company.</p><p>Design of Experiments (DOE) - Generally, it is the discipline of using an efficient, structured, and proven g p ( ) y, p g , , p</p><p>approach to interrogating a process or system for the purpose of maximizing the gain in process or system</p><p>knowledge.</p><p>Design for Six Sigma (DFSS) - The use of six sigma thinking, tools and methods applied to the design of</p><p>products and services to improve the initial release performance, ongoing reliability, and life-cycle cost.</p><p>DMAIC - The acronym for core phases of the six sigma methodology used to solve process and business</p><p>problems through data and analytical methods. See define, measure, analyze, improve and control.</p><p>DPMO - Defects per million opportunities – The total number of defects observed divided by the total number</p><p>of opportunities, expressed in parts per million. Sometimes called Defects per Million (DPM).</p><p>DPU - Defects per unit - The total number of defects detected in some number of units divided by the total</p><p>number of those units.</p><p>Entitlement - The best demonstrated performance for an existing configuration of a process or system. It is an</p><p>empirical demonstration of what level of improvement can potentially be reachedempirical demonstration of what level of improvement can potentially be reached.</p><p>Epsilon İ - Greek symbol used to represent residual error.</p><p>Experimental Design - See Design of Experiments.</p><p>Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) - A procedure used to identify, assess, and mitigate risks</p><p>associated with potential product, system, or process failure modes.</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>Finance Representative - An individual who provides an independent evaluation of a six sigma project in</p><p>terms of hard and/or soft savings. They are a project support resource to both Champions and Project</p><p>Leaders.</p><p>657</p><p>Glossary</p><p>Fishbone Diagram - See cause and effect diagram.</p><p>Flowchart - A graphic model of the flow of activities, material, and/or information that occurs during a process.</p><p>Gage R&R - Quantitative assessment of how much variation (repeatability and reproducibility) is in a measurement</p><p>system compared to the total variation of the process or system.</p><p>Green Belt - An individual who receives approximately two weeks of training in DMAIC, analytical problem solving,</p><p>and change management methods. A Green Belt is a part time six sigma position that applies six sigma to their</p><p>local area, doing smaller-scoped projects and providing support to Black Belt projects.</p><p>Hidden Factory or Operation - Corrective and non-value-added work required to produce a unit of output that is</p><p>generally not recognized as an unnecessary generator of waste in form of resources, materials and cost.</p><p>Histogram - A bar chart that depicts the frequencies (by the height of the plotted bars) of numerical or</p><p>measurement categories.</p><p>Implementation Team - A cross-functional executive team representing various areas of the company . Its charter</p><p>is to drive the implementation of six sigma by defining and documenting practices methods and operating policiesis to drive the implementation of six sigma by defining and documenting practices, methods and operating policies.</p><p>Input - A resource consumed, utilized, or added to a process or system. Synonymous with X, characteristic, and</p><p>input variable.</p><p>Input-Process-Output (IPO) Diagram - A visual representation of a process or system where inputs are</p><p>represented by input arrows to a box (representing the process or system) and outputs are shown using arrows</p><p>emanating out of the box.</p><p>lshikawa Diagram - See cause and effect diagram and fishbone diagram.</p><p>Least Squares - A method of curve-fitting that defines the best fit as the one that minimizes the sum of the squared</p><p>deviations of the data points from the fitted curve.</p><p>Long-term Variation - The observed variation of an input or output characteristic which has had the opportunity to</p><p>experience the majority of the variation effects that influence it.</p><p>L C t l Li it (LCL) f t l h t th li it b hi h th b t ti ti t i f thLower Control Limit (LCL) - for control charts: the limit above which the subgroup statistics must remain for the</p><p>process to be in control. Typically, 3 standard deviations below the central tendency.</p><p>Lower Specification Limit (LSL) - The lowest value of a characteristic which is acceptable.</p><p>Master Black Belt - An individual who has received training beyond a Black Belt. The technical, go-to expert</p><p>regarding technical and project issues in six sigma. Master Black Belts teach and mentor other six sigma Belts,</p><p>their projects and support Champions.</p><p>Mean - See average.</p><p>Measurement - The act of obtaining knowledge about an event or characteristic through measured quantification</p><p>or assignment to categories.</p><p>Measurement Accuracy - For a repeated measurement, it is a comparison of the average of the measurements</p><p>compare to some known standard.</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>Measurement Precision - For a repeated measurement, it is the amount of variation that exists in the measured</p><p>values.</p><p>658</p><p>Glossary</p><p>Measurement Systems Analysis (MSA) - An assessment of the accuracy and precision of a method of obtaining</p><p>measurements. See also Gage R&R.measurements. See also Gage R&R.</p><p>Median - The middle value of a data set when the values are arranged in either ascending or descending order.</p><p>Metric - A measure that is considered to be a key indicator of performance. It should be linked to goals or</p><p>objectives and carefully monitored.</p><p>Natural Tolerances of a Process - See Control Limits.</p><p>Nominal Group Technique - A structured method that a team can use to generate and rank a list of ideas or</p><p>items.</p><p>Non-Value Added (NVA) - Any activity performed in producing a product or delivering a service that does not add</p><p>value, where value is defined as changing the form, fit or function of the product or service and is something for</p><p>which the customer is willing to pay.</p><p>Normal Distribution - The distribution characterized by the smooth, bell- shaped curve. Synonymous with</p><p>Gaussian DistributionGaussian Distribution.</p><p>Objective Statement - A succinct statement of the goals, timing and expectations of a six sigma improvement</p><p>project.</p><p>Opportunities - The number of characteristics, parameters or features of a product or service that can be classified</p><p>as acceptable or unacceptable.</p><p>Out of Control - A process is said to be out of control if it exhibits variations larger than its control limits or shows aOut of Control A process is said to be out of control if it exhibits variations larger than its control limits or shows a</p><p>pattern of variation.</p><p>Output - A resource or item or characteristic that is the product of a process or system. See also Y, CTQ.</p><p>Pareto Chart - A bar chart for attribute (or categorical) data categories are presented in descending order of</p><p>frequency.</p><p>Pareto Principle - The general principle originally proposed by Vilfredo Pareto (1848-1923) that the majority of</p><p>influence on an outcome is exerted by a minority of input factors.</p><p>Poka-Yoke - A translation of a Japanese term meaning to mistake-proof.</p><p>Probability - The likelihood of an event or circumstance occurring.</p><p>Problem Statement - A succinct statement of a business situation which is used to bound and describe the</p><p>problem the six sigma project</p><p>is attempting to solve.</p><p>Process - A set of activities and material and/or information flow which transforms a set of inputs into outputs for</p><p>the purpose of producing a product, providing a service or performing a task.</p><p>Process Characterization - The act of thoroughly understanding a process, including the specific relationship(s)</p><p>between its outputs and the inputs, and its performance and capability.</p><p>Process Certification - Establishing documented evidence that a process will consistently produce required</p><p>outcome or meet required specifications.</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>outcome or meet required specifications.</p><p>Process Flow Diagram - See flowchart.</p><p>659</p><p>Glossary</p><p>Process Member - A individual who performs activities within a process to deliver a process output, a product</p><p>or a service to a customeror a service to a customer.</p><p>Process Owner - Process Owners have responsibility for process performance and resources. They provide</p><p>support, resources and functional expertise to six sigma projects. They are accountable for implementing</p><p>developed six sigma solutions into their process.</p><p>Quality Function Deployment (QFD) - A systematic process used to integrate customer requirements into</p><p>every aspect of the design and delivery of products and services.</p><p>Range - A measure of the variability in a data set. It is the difference between the largest and smallest values</p><p>in a data set.</p><p>Regression Analysis - A statistical technique for determining the mathematical relation between a measured</p><p>quantity and the variables it depends on. Includes Simple and Multiple Linear Regression.</p><p>Repeatability (of a Measurement) - The extent to which repeated measurements of a particular object with a</p><p>particular instrument produce the same value. See also Gage R&R.</p><p>Reproducibility (of a Measurement) - The extent to which repeated measurements of a particular object with</p><p>a particular individual produce the same value. See also Gage R&R.</p><p>Rework - Activity required to correct defects produced by a process.</p><p>Risk Priority Number (RPN) - In Failure Mode Effects Analysis -- the aggregate score of a failure mode</p><p>including its severity, frequency of occurrence, and ability to be detected.</p><p>Rolled Throughput Yield (RTY) - The probability of a unit going through all process steps or system</p><p>characteristics with zero defects.</p><p>R.U.M.B.A. - An acronym used to describe a method to determine the validity of customer requirements. It</p><p>stands for Reasonable, Understandable, Measurable, Believable, and Achievable.</p><p>Run Chart - A basic graphical tool that charts a characteristic’s performance over time.</p><p>Scatter Plot - A chart in which one variable is plotted against another to determine the relationship, if any,</p><p>between the two.</p><p>Screening Experiment - A type of experiment to identify the subset of significant factors from among a large</p><p>group of potential factors.</p><p>Short Term Variation - The amount of variation observed in a characteristic which has not had the opportunity</p><p>to experience all the sources of variation from the inputs acting on it.</p><p>Sigma Score (Z) - A commonly used measure of process capability that represents the number of short-term</p><p>standard deviations between the center of a process and the closest specification limit. Sometimes referred to</p><p>as sigma level, or simply Sigma.</p><p>Significant Y - An output of a process that exerts a significant influence on the success of the process or the</p><p>customer.</p><p>Six Sigma Leader - An individual that leads the implementation of Six Sigma coordinating all of the necessary</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>Six Sigma Leader An individual that leads the implementation of Six Sigma, coordinating all of the necessary</p><p>activities, assures optimal results are obtained and keeps everyone informed of progress made.</p><p>660</p><p>Glossary</p><p>Six Sigma Project - A well defined effort that states a business problem in quantifiable terms and with known</p><p>impro ement e pectationsimprovement expectations.</p><p>Six Sigma (System) - A proven set of analytical tools, project management techniques, reporting methods and</p><p>management techniques combined to form a powerful problem solving and business improvement methodology.</p><p>Special Cause Variation - Those non-random causes of variation that can be detected by the use of control charts</p><p>and good process documentation.</p><p>Specification Limits - The bounds of acceptable performance for a characteristicSpecification Limits The bounds of acceptable performance for a characteristic.</p><p>Stability (of a Process) - A process is said to be stable if it shows no recognizable pattern of change and no</p><p>special causes of variation are present.</p><p>Standard Deviation - One of the most common measures of variability in a data set or in a population. It is the</p><p>square root of the variance.</p><p>Statistical Problem - A problem that is addressed with facts and data analysis methods.</p><p>Statistical Process Control (SPC) - The use of basic graphical and statistical methods for measuring, analyzing,</p><p>and controlling the variation of a process for the purpose of continuously improving the process. A process is said to</p><p>be in a state of statistical control when it exhibits only random variation.</p><p>Statistical Solution - A data driven solution with known confidence/risk levels, as opposed to a qualitative, “I think”</p><p>solution.</p><p>S pplier An indi id al or entit responsible for pro iding an inp t to a process in the form of reso rces orSupplier - An individual or entity responsible for providing an input to a process in the form of resources or</p><p>information.</p><p>Trend - A gradual, systematic change over time or some other variable.</p><p>TSSW - Thinking the six sigma way – A mental model for improvement which perceives outcomes through a cause</p><p>and effect relationship combined with six sigma concepts to solve everyday and business problems.</p><p>Two-Level Design - An experiment where all factors are set at one of two levels denoted as low and high (-1 andTwo Level Design An experiment where all factors are set at one of two levels, denoted as low and high ( 1 and</p><p>+ 1).</p><p>Upper Control Limit (UCL) for Control Charts - The upper limit below which a process statistic must remain to be</p><p>in control. Typically this value is 3 standard deviations above the central tendency.</p><p>Upper Specification Limit (USL) - The highest value of a characteristic which is acceptable.</p><p>Variability - A generic term that refers to the property of a characteristic, process or system to take on different</p><p>values when it is repeated.</p><p>Variables - Quantities which are subject to change or variability.</p><p>Variable Data - Data which is continuous, which can be meaningfully subdivided, i.e. can have decimal</p><p>subdivisions.</p><p>Variance - A specifically defined mathematical measure of variability in a data set or population. It is the square of</p><p>the standard de iation</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>the standard deviation.</p><p>Variation - See variability.</p><p>661</p><p>Glossary</p><p>VOB - Voice of the business – Represents the needs of the business and the key stakeholders of the</p><p>business. It is usually items such as profitability, revenue, growth, market share, etc.y p y g</p><p>VOC - Voice of the customer – Represents the expressed and non-expressed needs, wants and desires of the</p><p>recipient of a process output, a product or a service. Its is usually expressed as specifications, requirements or</p><p>expectations.</p><p>VOP - Voice of the process – Represents the performance and capability of a process to achieve both</p><p>business and customer needs. It is usually expressed in some form of an efficiency and/or effectiveness</p><p>metric.</p><p>Waste - Waste represents material, effort and time that does not add value in the eyes of key stakeholders</p><p>(Customers, Employees, Investors).</p><p>X - An input characteristic to a process or system. In six sigma it is usually used in the expression of Y=f(X),</p><p>where the output (Y) is a function of the inputs</p><p>(X).</p><p>Y - An output characteristic of a process. In six sigma it is usually used in the expression of Y=f(X), where the</p><p>output (Y) is a function of the inputs (X)output (Y) is a function of the inputs (X).</p><p>Yellow Belt - An individual who receives approximately one week of training in problem solving and process</p><p>optimization methods. Yellow Belts participate in Process Management activates, participate on Green and</p><p>Black Belt projects and apply concepts to their work area and their job.</p><p>Z Score – See Sigma Score.</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>1</p><p>Lean Six Sigma</p><p>Black Belt Training</p><p>Appendix</p><p>Quiz Answers</p><p>Appendix</p><p>Quiz Answers</p><p>The Quiz questions at the end of each phase are intended to be a sampling of the topics covered</p><p>and provide you a guide to assess your level of knowledge retention. OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>provides a Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Assessment that is comprehensive in its coverage</p><p>of the topics addressed in this course. It contains 100 questions and exercises fully covering the</p><p>subject matter for Lean Six Sigma Black Belts. We suggest you consider this CLSSBB</p><p>Assessment package should you choose to pursue certification in Lean Six Sigma.</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>2</p><p>Define Phase Quiz Answers</p><p>1. C. How tightly all the various outcomes are clustered around the average</p><p>2. Standard Deviation</p><p>3. A. Features</p><p>B. Delivery</p><p>D. Integrity</p><p>E ExpenseE. Expense</p><p>4. True</p><p>5. E. Awareness</p><p>6. A. Start and stop points</p><p>C. Directional flow</p><p>D. All process steps</p><p>7. False</p><p>8. Change Agent</p><p>9. B. The defect or error in the process</p><p>10. Brainstorming</p><p>11. C. Pareto Analysis</p><p>12. Secondary</p><p>13. C. Zero inventory between process steps</p><p>14. True</p><p>15. D. An elimination of the specification(s)</p><p>16. A. Champion/Process Owner</p><p>17 False17. False</p><p>18. A. Internal Failure Costs</p><p>19. True</p><p>20. False</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>3</p><p>Measure Phase Quiz Answers</p><p>1. Reproducibility</p><p>2. Linearity</p><p>3. C. Data collection for streamed orientation</p><p>4. True</p><p>5 A Nominal Scale Data5. A. Nominal Scale Data</p><p>6. C. Mode</p><p>7. True</p><p>8. B. Special Causes are often the focus of BB projects</p><p>9. True</p><p>10. True</p><p>11. B. To help prioritize the independent variables</p><p>12. False</p><p>13. A. Predict failure risks and minimize their occurrence</p><p>B. Quantifies the severity, occurrence and detection of defects</p><p>D. Identify ways how a process leads to a failure to meet customer requirements</p><p>14. True</p><p>15. A. Precision</p><p>C. Accuracy</p><p>16. A. Primary and Secondary Metrics</p><p>B. Vital few X´s in the process</p><p>C. Before and after process changes</p><p>17. True</p><p>18. D. Comparison with a proven precise instrument</p><p>19. False</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>4</p><p>Analyze Phase Quiz Answers</p><p>1. False</p><p>2. Multi-Vari</p><p>3. D. Error in measurement</p><p>4. True</p><p>5. A. A Hypothesis Test is an a priori theory relating to differences between variables yp p y g</p><p>B. A statistical test or Hypothesis Test is performed to prove or disprove the theory</p><p>C. A Hypothesis Test converts the Practical Problem into a Statistical Problem.</p><p>6. A. Skewness</p><p>B. Mixed Distributions</p><p>C. Kurtosis</p><p>E. Granularity</p><p>7. False</p><p>8. D. Determine if document A and document B have different Median cycle times</p><p>9. True</p><p>10. D. Having the tails of the distribution equal each other g q</p><p>11. True</p><p>12. B. Compare more than two sample proportions with each other</p><p>13. True</p><p>14 C 3014. C. 30</p><p>15. B. Median</p><p>16. False</p><p>17. B. Failure to accept the Null Hypothesis</p><p>18. True</p><p>19. True</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>5</p><p>Improve Phase Quiz Answers</p><p>1. C. Relationships between Y and two or more X’s.</p><p>2. A. Simple Linear</p><p>B. Quadratic</p><p>C. Cubic</p><p>D. Multiple Linear</p><p>E. Logarithmic</p><p>3. B. The X’s are assumed to be independent of each other. p</p><p>C. The X’s are assumed to not be correlated.</p><p>D. The residuals or errors are assumed to be Normally Distributed.</p><p>E. Interactions are NOT included in Multiple Linear Regressions.</p><p>F. R2 and the statistical confidence of the coefficients are impacted by the measurement</p><p>error of the inputs or X’s.</p><p>4. A. Independent of the transform, the upper specification will be a larger number than the</p><p>l ifi ti h t f dlower specification when transformed.</p><p>D. The process data is transformed but not the specification limits.</p><p>5. B. Screening factors among possibilities</p><p>C. Achieving a robust design</p><p>6. D. Response Surface Design</p><p>7. D. Define the Practical Problem</p><p>8. E. 64</p><p>9. A. Full Factorials are used when 5 or fewer factors are involved.</p><p>B. Full Factorials are better for optimizing a process than Fractional Factorials.</p><p>C. Full Factorials are used instead of Fractional Factorials if interactions need to be fully</p><p>d t dunderstood.</p><p>10. B. The root cause for the defective product characteristic needs to be found.</p><p>C. The variation needs to be affected by the input factors.</p><p>D. The response time to calls needs to be reduced.</p><p>11. B. The process may show little change if curvature exists and the local maximum of the</p><p>process output is between the large differences of factor levels chosen.p p g</p><p>12. A. An Experimental Design cannot be orthogonal if not balanced.</p><p>B. An Experimental Design can be a balanced design but not orthogonal although it is</p><p>encouraged to use only balanced and orthogonal designs.</p><p>C. The use of blocking can be used for accounting of the impact of Noise variables.</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>6</p><p>Improve Phase Quiz Answers</p><p>13. False</p><p>14. C. If the experiment is going to start in a week, contact the Process Owners to work out</p><p>the needs before the experiment.</p><p>D. Use a log book and note any unusual observations during the experiment.</p><p>15. False</p><p>16. B. Implement solutionsp</p><p>17. B. The number of experimental runs minus 1</p><p>18. A. 13</p><p>19. B. A design with IV resolution will not have Main Effects confounded with 2-way</p><p>interactions.</p><p>C A d i ith V l ti ill h 2 i t ti f d d ith 3C. A design with V resolution will have 2-way interactions confounded with 3-way</p><p>interactions.</p><p>E. A design with V resolution has no Main Effects confounded with other Main Effects</p><p>F. A design with III resolution has no Main Effects confounded with other Main Effects</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>7</p><p>Control Phase Quiz Answers</p><p>1. B. It attempts to find the optimum region outside the original design space.</p><p>2. B. The desired process output was not yet found within the original design space.</p><p>3. False</p><p>4 A. Process Capability is a way of predicting future performance when a stable process</p><p>exists.</p><p>B. Special Causes reduce Predictability and Process Capability measures Process p y p y</p><p>Predictability relative to specifications.</p><p>D. If the process is non-normal the type of distribution must be remembered when</p><p>monitoring a process in the Control Phase. This type of Non-normal Distribution must</p><p>be known to run a proper Process Capability Analysis.</p><p>5. D. stabilize</p><p>6 A MUDA t hi h i i di ti d f t i i th6. A. MUDA means waste which is indicating defects are occurring in the process.</p><p>7. True</p><p>8. A. Kanban</p><p>9. True</p><p>10. B. Kanban</p><p>11. False</p><p>12. A. Poka-Yoke or Mistake Proofing</p><p>D. Robust product design</p><p>13 A A ith i i i13. A. A gauge with a worsening precision.</p><p>C. Other unknown significant Noise factors are increasingly varying.</p><p>14. A. Common</p><p>C. Special</p><p>15. False</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>“anyone” to find.</p><p>Orderliness eliminates</p><p>waste in production</p><p>and clerical activities.</p><p>– A place for everything and</p><p>everything in its place.</p><p>– Easily visible and accessible.</p><p>W hy:</p><p>– Visually shows what is required</p><p>or is out of place.</p><p>– More efficient to find items and</p><p>documents (silhouettes/ labels).</p><p>– Saves time by not having to</p><p>Things to remember</p><p>• Things used together</p><p>should be kept together.</p><p>• Use labels, tape, floor</p><p>markings, signs, and</p><p>shadow outlines.</p><p>Things to remember</p><p>• Things used together</p><p>should be kept together.</p><p>• Use labels, tape, floor</p><p>markings, signs, and</p><p>shadow outlines.</p><p>Sharable items sho ld be</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>Saves time by not having to</p><p>search for items.</p><p>– Shorter travel distances.</p><p>• Sharable items should be</p><p>kept at a central location</p><p>(eliminated excess).</p><p>• Sharable items should be</p><p>kept at a central location</p><p>(eliminated excess).</p><p>566</p><p>SHINING – Cleaning the Workplace</p><p>Lean Controls</p><p>The third stage of 5S</p><p>is keeping everything</p><p>clean and swept.</p><p>This maintains a</p><p>safer work area and</p><p>problem areas are</p><p>quickly identified. An</p><p>important part of</p><p>Definition:</p><p>– Clean everything and</p><p>find ways to keep it</p><p>clean.</p><p>– Make cleaning a part</p><p>of your everyday work.</p><p>W hy:</p><p>A clean workplaceimportant part of</p><p>“shining” is “Mess</p><p>Prevention.” In other</p><p>words, don’t allow</p><p>litter, scrap,</p><p>shavings, cuttings,</p><p>etc., to land on the</p><p>floor in the first</p><p>– A clean workplace</p><p>indicates a quality</p><p>product and process.</p><p>– Dust and dirt cause</p><p>product contamination</p><p>and potential health</p><p>hazards.</p><p>– A clean workplace</p><p>helps identify abnormal</p><p>Things to remember</p><p>• “Everything in its place” frees up</p><p>time for cleaning.</p><p>• Use an office or facility layout as a</p><p>visual aid to identify individual</p><p>responsibilities for cleaning. This</p><p>eliminates “no man’s land.”</p><p>• Cleaning the work area is like</p><p>Things to remember</p><p>• “Everything in its place” frees up</p><p>time for cleaning.</p><p>• Use an office or facility layout as a</p><p>visual aid to identify individual</p><p>responsibilities for cleaning. This</p><p>eliminates “no man’s land.”</p><p>• Cleaning the work area is like</p><p>STANDARDIZING – Creating Consistency</p><p>place.</p><p>p y</p><p>conditions.</p><p>Cleaning the work area is like</p><p>bathing. It relieves stress and strain,</p><p>removes sweat and dirt, and</p><p>prepares the body for the next day.</p><p>bathing. It relieves stress and strain,</p><p>removes sweat and dirt, and</p><p>prepares the body for the next day.</p><p>STANDARDIZING – Creating Consistency</p><p>The fourth stage of 5S</p><p>involves creating a</p><p>consistent approach</p><p>for carrying out tasks</p><p>and procedures.</p><p>Orderliness is the</p><p>Definition:</p><p>– To maintain the workplace</p><p>at a level that uncovers</p><p>problems and makes them</p><p>obvious.</p><p>core of</p><p>“standardization” and</p><p>is maintained by</p><p>Visual Controls which</p><p>might consist of:</p><p>Signboards, Painted</p><p>Lines, Color-coding</p><p>strategies and</p><p>– To continuously improve</p><p>your office or facility by</p><p>continuous assessment and</p><p>action.</p><p>W hy:</p><p>– To sustain sorting, storage</p><p>and shining activities every</p><p>Things to remember</p><p>• W e must keep the work place neat</p><p>enough for visual identifiers to be</p><p>effective in uncovering hidden</p><p>Things to remember</p><p>• W e must keep the work place neat</p><p>enough for visual identifiers to be</p><p>effective in uncovering hiddenstrategies and</p><p>Standardizing “Best</p><p>Methods” across the</p><p>organization.</p><p>and shining activities every</p><p>day.</p><p>effective in uncovering hidden</p><p>problems.</p><p>• Develop a system that enables</p><p>everyone in the workplace to see</p><p>problems when they occur.</p><p>effective in uncovering hidden</p><p>problems.</p><p>• Develop a system that enables</p><p>everyone in the workplace to see</p><p>problems when they occur.</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>567</p><p>SUSTAINING – Maintaining the 5S</p><p>This last stage of 5S</p><p>Lean Controls</p><p>This last stage of 5S</p><p>is the discipline and</p><p>commitment of all</p><p>other stages.</p><p>Without “sustaining”,</p><p>your workplace can</p><p>easily revert back to</p><p>being dirty and</p><p>Definition:</p><p>– To maintain our</p><p>discipline, we need to</p><p>practice and repeat until</p><p>it becomes a way of life.</p><p>chaotic. That is why</p><p>it is so crucial for</p><p>your team to be</p><p>empowered to</p><p>improve and</p><p>maintain their</p><p>workplace. Keeping</p><p>a 5S program vital in</p><p>W hy:</p><p>– To build 5S into our</p><p>everyday process.</p><p>Things to Remember</p><p>• Develop schedules and</p><p>check lists.</p><p>• Good habits are hard</p><p>to establish.</p><p>• Commitment and discipline</p><p>toward housekeeping are</p><p>essential first steps toward</p><p>Things to Remember</p><p>• Develop schedules and</p><p>check lists.</p><p>• Good habits are hard</p><p>to establish.</p><p>• Commitment and discipline</p><p>toward housekeeping are</p><p>essential first steps toward a 5S program vital in</p><p>an organization</p><p>creates a cleaner</p><p>workplace, a safer</p><p>workplace. It</p><p>essential first steps toward</p><p>being world class.</p><p>p</p><p>being world class.</p><p>contributes to how we feel about our product, our process, our company and ourselves. It provides</p><p>a customer showcase to promote your business and product quality will improve – especially by</p><p>reducing contaminants. Efficiency will increase also. When employees take pride in their work and</p><p>The Visual Factory</p><p>A visual factory can</p><p>best be represented by</p><p>k l h</p><p>workplace it can lead to greater job satisfaction and higher productivity.</p><p>The basis and foundation of a Visua l Factory are the 5S Standards.</p><p>a workplace where a</p><p>recently hired</p><p>supervisor can easily</p><p>identify inventory</p><p>levels, extra tools or</p><p>supplies, scrap issues,</p><p>downtime concerns or</p><p>even issues with setups</p><p>A Visua l Factory enables a process to manage its processes w ith clear</p><p>indica tions of opportunities. Your team should ask the follow ing</p><p>questions if look ing for a project:</p><p>– Can w e readily identify Dow ntime Issues?</p><p>– Can w e readily identify Scrap Issues?</p><p>– Can w e readily identify Changeover Problems?</p><p>– Can w e readily identify Line Ba lancing Opportunities?</p><p>– Can w e readily identify Ex cessive Inventory Levels?even issues with setups</p><p>or changeovers.</p><p>Can w e readily identify Ex cessive Inventory Levels?</p><p>– Can w e readily identify Ex traneous Tools & Supplies?</p><p>Ex ercise:</p><p>– Can you come up w ith any opportunities for “VISUAL” a ids in your</p><p>project?</p><p>– W hat visua l a ids ex ist to manage your process?</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>568</p><p>What is Standardized Work?</p><p>Lean Controls</p><p>Affected</p><p>employees</p><p>should</p><p>understand that</p><p>once they</p><p>If the items are organized and orderly,</p><p>then standardized w ork can be</p><p>accomplished.</p><p>– Less standard devia tion of results</p><p>– Visual factory demands framew ork</p><p>of standardized w ork .</p><p>Standardized W orkStandardized W ork</p><p>once they</p><p>together have</p><p>defined the</p><p>standard, they</p><p>will be expected</p><p>to perform the</p><p>job according to</p><p>that standard.</p><p>The “one best w ay” to perform each</p><p>operation has been identified and</p><p>agreed upon through genera l consensus</p><p>(not majority rules)</p><p>– This defines the “Standard” w ork</p><p>procedure</p><p>Visual Factory</p><p>W e cannot</p><p>susta in</p><p>Standardized</p><p>W ork w ithout</p><p>Visual Factory</p><p>W e cannot</p><p>susta in</p><p>Standardized</p><p>W ork w ithout</p><p>5S - W orkplace Organization</p><p>W ork w ithout</p><p>5S and the</p><p>Visua l Factory.</p><p>5S - W orkplace Organization</p><p>W ork w ithout</p><p>5S and the</p><p>Visua l Factory.</p><p>Prerequisites for Standardized Work</p><p>Standardized w ork does not happen w ithout the visua l factory</p><p>w hich can be further described w ith:</p><p>Availability of required tools (5S). Operators cannot be ex pected</p><p>to mainta in standard w ork if required to locate needed tools</p><p>Consistent flow of raw materia l. Operators cannot be ex pected</p><p>to mainta in standard w ork if they are searching for needed parts</p><p>Visual a lert of varia tion in the process (visua l factory)Visua l a lert of varia tion in the process (visua l factory).</p><p>Operators, materia l handlers, office sta ff a ll need visua l signals to</p><p>keep “standard w ork” a standard</p><p>Identified and labeled in-process stock (5S). As inventory levels of</p><p>in-process stock decrease, a visua l signal</p><p>should be sent to the</p><p>materia l handlers to replenish this stock</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>The steps in developing CTQ’s are identifying the customer, capturing the Voice of the Customer and</p><p>finally validating the CTQ’s.</p><p>materia l handlers to replenish this stock</p><p>569</p><p>What is Kaizen?</p><p>Lean Controls</p><p>• Definition* : The philosophy of continual</p><p>improvement, that every process can and</p><p>should be continually evaluated and</p><p>improved in terms of time required, resources</p><p>used, resultant quality, and other aspects</p><p>relevant to the process.</p><p>Standardized W ork</p><p>Kaizen</p><p>• Kaikaku are breakthrough successes which</p><p>th fi t f f Si Si j t Visual Factoryare the first focus of Six Sigma projects.</p><p>* N ote: Ka izen Definition from: All I</p><p>N eeded To Know About</p><p>M anufacturing I Learned in Joe’s</p><p>Garage. M iller and Schenk ,</p><p>Bayrock Press, 1996 . Page 75 . 5S - W orkplace Organization</p><p>Visual Factory</p><p>Prerequisites for Kaizen</p><p>A Kaizen event is very similar to a Six Sigma project. A Six Sigma project is actually a Kaizen.</p><p>By involving your project team or others in an area to assist with implementing the Lean Control</p><p>or concepts you will increase buy in of the team which will effect your projects sustainability.</p><p>Kaizen’s need the follow ing cultura l elements:</p><p>M anagement Support. Consider the corpora te support w hich is the</p><p>reason w hy Six Sigma focus is a success in your organiza tion</p><p>M easurable Process. W ithout standardized w ork , w e rea lly w ouldn’t</p><p>have a consistent process to measure. Cycle times w ould vary, assembly</p><p>methods w ould vary, ba tches of materia ls w ould be mix ed, etc…</p><p>Analysis Tools. There a re improvement projects in each organiza tion</p><p>w hich cannot be solved by an operator. This is w hy w e teach the</p><p>analysis tools in the break through stra tegy of Six Sigma.</p><p>Operator Support. The organization needs to understand tha t its future</p><p>lies in the success of the va lue-adding employees. Our roles as Belts are</p><p>to convince opera tors that w e are here for them--they w ill then be there</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>A Kaizen event can be small or large in scope. Kaizens are improvement with a purpose of constantly</p><p>improving a process. Some Kaizens are very small changes like a new jig or placement of a product</p><p>or more involved projects. Kaizens are Six Sigma projects with business impact.</p><p>for us.</p><p>570</p><p>What is Kanban?</p><p>Lean Controls</p><p>Kanbans are the best control method of inventory w hich</p><p>impacts some of the 7 elements of M UDA show n earlier.</p><p>Kanban provides production, conveyance, and delivery</p><p>information. In it’s purest form the system w ill not a llow</p><p>any goods to be moved w ithin the facility w ithout an</p><p>appropria te Kanban (or signal) a ttached to the goods.</p><p>– The Japanese w ord for a communica tion signal</p><p>or card typica lly a signal to begin w ork Kaizen</p><p>Kanban</p><p>or card--typica lly a signa l to begin w ork</p><p>– Kanban is the technique</p><p>used to “pull” products and</p><p>materia l through and into</p><p>the lean manufacturing system.</p><p>– The actua l “Kanban” can be a physical</p><p>signa l such as an empty conta iner or</p><p>a small card. Visual Factory</p><p>Standardized W ork</p><p>a e</p><p>This is a building block. A Kanban needs to be supported by the previous steps we have reviewed. If</p><p>Kanbans are abused they will actually backfire and effect the process in a negative manner.</p><p>5S - W orkplace Organization</p><p>Two Types of Kanban</p><p>There are two categories of Kanbans, finished good Kanbans and incoming material Kanbans as</p><p>depicted here.</p><p>There are two main categories of Kanbans:</p><p>Type 1 : Finished goods Kanbans</p><p>– Signal Kanban: Should be</p><p>posted a t the end of the</p><p>processing area to signa l for</p><p>production to begin.</p><p>– P.I.K Kanban: Used for a much</p><p>more refined level of inventory</p><p>control. Kanban is posted as</p><p>IntraIntra --processprocess</p><p>P.I.K.P.I.K.</p><p>SignalSignal</p><p>Production</p><p>Instruction Kanban</p><p>p</p><p>inventory is depleted thus</p><p>insuring only the minimum</p><p>a llow able level of product is</p><p>ma inta ined.</p><p>Type 2 : Incoming M ateria l Kanbans</p><p>– Used to purchase materia ls</p><p>from a supplying department</p><p>ith i t l t l t</p><p>InterInter--ProcessProcess</p><p>W ithdraw alW ithdraw al</p><p>Between two</p><p>gg</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>either interna l or ex terna l to</p><p>the organiza tion. Regula tes</p><p>the amount of W IP inventory</p><p>loca ted a t a particular process. SupplierSupplier</p><p>Between two</p><p>processes</p><p>571</p><p>Prerequisites for a Successful Kanban System</p><p>Kanbans should</p><p>Lean Controls</p><p>Kanbans should</p><p>smooth out inventory</p><p>and keep product</p><p>flowing but use them</p><p>cautiously. If you</p><p>prematurely</p><p>implement a Kanban</p><p>it WILL backfire.</p><p>These items support successful Kanbans:</p><p>• Improve changeover procedures.</p><p>• Relatively stable demand cycle.</p><p>• N umber of parts per Kanban (card) M UST be standard and• N umber of parts per Kanban (card) M UST be standard and</p><p>SHOULD be kept to as few as possible parts per card.</p><p>• Small amount of varia tion (or defects).</p><p>• N ear zero defects should be sent to the assembly process</p><p>(Result of earlier belt projects).</p><p>• Consistent cycle times defined by Standardized W ork .</p><p>• M ateria l handlers must be tra ined in the organization of the</p><p>transporta tion system.</p><p>As w e have indicated, if you do N OT have 5S,</p><p>visua l factory, standardized w ork and ongoing</p><p>ka izen’s, Kanbans cannot succeed.</p><p>Warnings Regarding Kanban</p><p>,</p><p>Kanban systems are not quick fix es to large</p><p>inventory problems, w ork force issues, poor</p><p>product planning, fluctuating demand cycles,</p><p>etc...etc...</p><p>Don’t forget that “weakest Link” thing!</p><p>It i t ibl t i l t i bl K b t ith t t t t t d</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>It is not possible to implement a viable Kanban system without a strong support structure made up</p><p>of the prerequisites. One of the most difficult concepts for people to integrate is the simplicity of the</p><p>Lean tools… and to keep the discipline. Benchmarks have organizations using up to seven years</p><p>to implement a successful Kanban System all the way through supplier and customer supply chain.</p><p>572</p><p>The Lean Tools and Sustained Project Success</p><p>Lean Controls</p><p>The Lean tools help susta in project success The main lessons youThe Lean tools help susta in project success. The main lessons you</p><p>should consider are:</p><p>1 . The TEAM should 5S the project area and begin integra ting visua l</p><p>factory indica tors.</p><p>– Indications of the need for 5 S are:</p><p>– Outliers in your project metric</p><p>– Loss of initia l ga ins from project findings</p><p>2 . The TEAM should develop Standardized W ork Instructions</p><p>– They are required to susta in your system benefits.</p><p>– How ever, remember w ithout an organized w ork place w ith</p><p>5S standardized w ork instructions w on’t crea te consistency</p><p>3 . Ka izen’s and Kanban’s cannot be a ttempted w ithout organized</p><p>w orkplaces and organized w ork instructions.</p><p>The 5 Lean concepts are an excellent method for Belts to sustain their project success. If you have</p><p>f</p><p>w orkplaces and organized w ork instructions.</p><p>– Remember the need for 5S and Standardized W ork</p><p>Instructions to support our projects.</p><p>4 . Project Scope dicta tes how far up the Lean tools ladder you need</p><p>to implement measures to susta in any project success from your</p><p>DM AIC efforts.</p><p>outliers, declining benefits or dropping process capability, you need to consider the concepts</p><p>presented in this module.</p><p>Class Exercise</p><p>In the boundaries for your project scope, give some</p><p>ex amples of Lean tools in opera tion. p p</p><p>– Others can learn from those items you consider basic.</p><p>List other Lean tools you are most interested in applying to</p><p>susta in your project results.</p><p>To generate the Ex ercise information consider w alk ingTo genera te the Ex ercise information consider w alk</p><p>ing</p><p>around your facility, especia lly if it is N OT a manufacturing</p><p>one, and consider w here a visual factory w ould be useful</p><p>a long w ith the other 4 Lean concepts review ed.</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>573</p><p>At this point, you should be able to:</p><p>Lean Controls</p><p>� Describe some Lean tools</p><p>� Understand how these tools can help with project</p><p>sustainability</p><p>� Understand how the Lean tools depends on each other</p><p>� Understand how tools must document the defect prevention</p><p>created in the Control Phase</p><p>You have now completed Control Phase – Lean Controls.</p><p>Notes</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>574</p><p>Lean Six Sigma</p><p>Black Belt Training</p><p>Control Phase</p><p>Defect Controls</p><p>Control Phase</p><p>Defect Controls</p><p>Now we will continue in the Control Phase with the “Defect Controls”Now we will continue in the Control Phase with the Defect Controls .</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>575</p><p>Defect Controls</p><p>Overview</p><p>Advanced CapabilityAdvanced Capability</p><p>Advanced Ex perimentsAdvanced Ex periments</p><p>W elcome to ControlW elcome to Control</p><p>R li ti T l d Si Si D i</p><p>Si Si C t l PlSix Sigma Control Plans</p><p>Defect ControlsDefect Controls</p><p>Lean ControlsLean Controls</p><p>Sta tistica l Process Control</p><p>(SPC)</p><p>Sta tistica l Process Control</p><p>(SPC)</p><p>Realistic Tolerance and Six Sigma DesignRealistic Tolerance and Six Sigma Design</p><p>Process Automation or InterruptionProcess Automation or Interruption</p><p>Poka-YokePoka-Yoke</p><p>In an effort to put in place Defect Controls we will examine Tolerances, Process Automation and</p><p>Poka-Yoke.</p><p>Six Sigma Control PlansSix Sigma Control Plans</p><p>W rap Up & Action ItemsW rap Up & Action Items</p><p>Purpose of Defect Prevention in Control Phase</p><p>We will examine the meaning of each of these and show you how to apply them.</p><p>Process improvement efforts often fa lter during implementation of</p><p>ti th d l d i th A l d Inew operating methods learned in the Analyze and Improve</p><p>Phases.</p><p>Susta inable improvements can not be achieved w ithout control</p><p>tactics to guarantee permanency.</p><p>Defect Prevention seeks to ga in permanency by eliminating or</p><p>rigidly defining human intervention in a process.</p><p>Yes sir, we are in CONTROL!</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>With Defect Prevention we want to ensure that the improvements created during the project stay in place.</p><p>576</p><p>Sigma Level for Project Sustaining in Control</p><p>The best approach to Defect Prevention is to design Six Sigma right into the process</p><p>Defect Controls</p><p>The best approach to Defect Prevention is to design Six Sigma right into the process.</p><p>Designing products and processes such that the output Y meets or</p><p>ex ceeds the target capability.</p><p>24</p><p>22n</p><p>on</p><p>Y</p><p>2019181716151413121110</p><p>21</p><p>19</p><p>17</p><p>Distribution of X</p><p>Distribution</p><p>of Y</p><p>Relationship</p><p>Y = F(x)</p><p>Sp</p><p>ec</p><p>ifi</p><p>ca</p><p>tio</p><p>n</p><p>W hen designing the part or process, specifications on X are set such that the</p><p>target capability on Y is achieved.</p><p>Both the target and tolerance of the X must be addressed in the spec limits.</p><p>6s Product/Process Design</p><p>Upper</p><p>Prediction</p><p>24</p><p>22</p><p>21</p><p>19</p><p>17</p><p>Distribution</p><p>of Y</p><p>Relationship</p><p>Y = F(x)</p><p>Sp</p><p>ec</p><p>ifi</p><p>ca</p><p>tio</p><p>n</p><p>on</p><p>Y</p><p>Prediction</p><p>Interval</p><p>2019181716151413121110</p><p>Distribution of X</p><p>Lower</p><p>Prediction</p><p>Interval</p><p>If the rela tionship betw een X and Y is empirica lly developed</p><p>through regressions or DOE’s uncerta inty ex ists.</p><p>As a result confidence interva ls should be used w hen establishing</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>As a result, confidence interva ls should be used w hen establishing</p><p>the specifica tions for X .</p><p>577</p><p>Product/Process Design Example</p><p>Defect Controls</p><p>Using 95% prediction bands within MINITABTM</p><p>Stat > Regression>Fitted Lin Plot …..Options…Display Prediction Interval</p><p>70</p><p>80</p><p>90</p><p>Y = 7.75434 + 5.81104X</p><p>R-Sq = 88.0 %</p><p>Regression Plot</p><p>70</p><p>80</p><p>90</p><p>Y = 7.75434 + 5.81104X</p><p>R-Sq = 88.0 %</p><p>Regression Plot</p><p>0 5 10</p><p>0</p><p>10</p><p>20</p><p>30</p><p>40</p><p>50</p><p>60</p><p>O</p><p>ut</p><p>pu</p><p>t</p><p>Regression</p><p>95% PI</p><p>0 5 10</p><p>0</p><p>10</p><p>20</p><p>30</p><p>40</p><p>50</p><p>60</p><p>O</p><p>ut</p><p>pu</p><p>t</p><p>Regression</p><p>95% PI</p><p>W hat are the</p><p>spec limits for</p><p>the output?</p><p>Usually we use the prediction band provided by MINITABTM. This is controllable by manipulation of</p><p>the confidence intervals. 90%, 05%, 99%, etc. Play with adjusting the prediction bands to see the</p><p>InputInput</p><p>W hat is the tolerance range for the input?</p><p>If you w ant 6 performance, you w ill remember to tighten the</p><p>output’s specifica tion to select the tolerance range of the input.</p><p>10</p><p>Y = 2.32891 - 0.282622X</p><p>R-Sq = 96.1 %</p><p>Regression Plot</p><p>N ote: High output spec connects</p><p>the confidence intervals. 90%, 05%, 99%, etc. Play with adjusting the prediction bands to see the</p><p>effect it has.</p><p>-30 -20 -10 0</p><p>0</p><p>5</p><p>Input2</p><p>O</p><p>ut</p><p>pu</p><p>t2</p><p>Regression</p><p>95% PI</p><p>70</p><p>80</p><p>90</p><p>Y = 7.75434 + 5.81104X</p><p>R-Sq = 88.0 %</p><p>Regression Plot</p><p>70</p><p>80</p><p>90</p><p>Y = 7.75434 + 5.81104X</p><p>R-Sq = 88.0 %</p><p>Regression Plot</p><p>g p p</p><p>w ith top line in both cases.</p><p>0 5 10</p><p>0</p><p>10</p><p>20</p><p>30</p><p>40</p><p>50</p><p>60</p><p>Input</p><p>O</p><p>ut</p><p>pu</p><p>t</p><p>Regression</p><p>95% PI</p><p>0 5 10</p><p>0</p><p>10</p><p>20</p><p>30</p><p>40</p><p>50</p><p>60</p><p>Input</p><p>O</p><p>ut</p><p>pu</p><p>t</p><p>Regression</p><p>95% PILow er input spec</p><p>Using top output spec determines high or low tolerance for input</p><p>d di l f i</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>depending on slope of regression</p><p>578</p><p>Poor Regression Impacting Tolerancing</p><p>Defect Controls</p><p>Regression Plot</p><p>10</p><p>20</p><p>O</p><p>ut</p><p>p1</p><p>+ 0.811312X</p><p>Y = -4.7E-01</p><p>90.4 %</p><p>R-Sq =</p><p>Regression Plot</p><p>Poor correla tion does</p><p>not a llow for tighter</p><p>tolerancing</p><p>10</p><p>20</p><p>30</p><p>O</p><p>ut</p><p>p2</p><p>+ 0.645476X</p><p>Y = 1.46491</p><p>63.0 %</p><p>R-Sq =</p><p>Regression Plot</p><p>0 10 20 30</p><p>0</p><p>Inp1</p><p>Regression</p><p>95% PI</p><p>0 10 20 30</p><p>0</p><p>Inp1</p><p>Regression</p><p>95% PI</p><p>5 – 6 Full Automation</p><p>Full Automation: Systems that monitor the process and automatically</p><p>adjust critical X’s to correct settings</p><p>• Automatic gauging and system adjustments</p><p>• Automatic detection and system activation systems - landing gear</p><p>extension based on aircraft speed and power setting</p><p>• Systems that count cycles and automatically make adjustments based</p><p>on an optimum number of cycles</p><p>• Automated temperature controllers for controlling heating and cooling</p><p>systems</p><p>• Anti-Lock braking systems</p><p>• Automatic welder control units for volts, amps and distance traveled</p><p>on each weld cycle</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>Automation can be an option as well which removes the human element and its inherent</p><p>variation. Although use caution to automate a process, many times people jump into automation</p><p>prematurely, if you automate a poor process what will that do for you?</p><p>579</p><p>Full Automation Example</p><p>Defect Controls</p><p>A Black Belt is working on controlling rust on machined surfaces of</p><p>brake rotors:</p><p>– A rust inhibiter is applied during the wash cycle after final</p><p>machining is completed</p><p>– Concentration of the inhibiter in the wash tank is a critical X that</p><p>must be maintained</p><p>– The previous system was a standard S.O.P. requiring a process</p><p>technician to audit and add the inhibiter manually</p><p>As part of the Control Phase, the team has implemented an automatic</p><p>check and replenish system on the washercheck and replenish system on the washer.</p><p>Full Automation</p><p>Don’t worry boss, it’s automated!!</p><p>4 – 5 Process Interruption</p><p>Process Interruption: Mechanism installed that shuts down the</p><p>process and prevents further operation until a required action is</p><p>preformed:</p><p>• Ground fault circuit breakers</p><p>• Child proof caps on medications</p><p>• Software routines to prevent undesirable commands</p><p>• Safety interlocks on equipment such as light curtains, dual palm</p><p>buttons, ram blocks</p><p>• Transfer system guides or fixtures that prevent over or undersized</p><p>parts from proceeding</p><p>• Temperature conveyor interlocks on ovens</p><p>• Missing component detection that stops the process when triggered</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>580</p><p>4 – 5 Process Interruption (cont.)</p><p>Defect Controls</p><p>Ex ample:Ex ample:</p><p>• A Black Belt is w ork ing on launching a new electric drive unit</p><p>on a transfer system</p><p>– One common fa ilure mode of the system is a bearing fa ilure</p><p>on the main motor shaft</p><p>– It w as determined that a high press fit a t bearing</p><p>insta lla tion w as causing these fa ilures</p><p>– The root cause of the problem turned out to be undersized– The root cause of the problem turned out to be undersized</p><p>bearings from the supplier</p><p>• Until the supplier could be brought into control or replaced, the</p><p>team implemented a press load monitor a t the bearing press</p><p>w ith a indica tor</p><p>– If the monitor detects a press load higher than the set point,</p><p>it shuts dow n the press and w ill not a llow the unit to be</p><p>removed from press until an interlock key is turned and the</p><p>t i th l dram reset in the manual mode</p><p>– Only the line lead person and the supervisor have keys to</p><p>the interlock</p><p>– The non-conforming part is automatica lly marked w ith red</p><p>dye</p><p>Process Interruption</p><p>3 – 5 Mistake Proofing</p><p>Mistake Proofing is</p><p>great because it is</p><p>usually inexpensive</p><p>and very effective.</p><p>M istake Proofing is best defined as:</p><p>– Using wisdom, ingenuity, or serendipity to create devices</p><p>allowing a 100% defect free step 100% of the time</p><p>Consider the many</p><p>everyday examples of</p><p>Mistake Proofing.</p><p>You can not fit the</p><p>diesel gas hose into</p><p>an unleaded vehicle</p><p>gas tank. Pretty</p><p>straightforward right?</p><p>allowing a 100% defect free step 100% of the time</p><p>Poka-Yoke is the Japanese term for mistake proofing or to avoid</p><p>“yokeuro” inadvertent errors “poka” .</p><p>1 432</p><p>See if you can straightforward, right?</p><p>6</p><p>5 7 8</p><p>See if you can</p><p>find the Poka-</p><p>Yokes!</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>581</p><p>Traditional Quality vs. Mistake Proofing</p><p>This clearly</p><p>Defect Controls</p><p>This clearly</p><p>highlights the</p><p>difference between</p><p>the two</p><p>approaches. What</p><p>are the benefits to</p><p>the Source</p><p>Inspection method?</p><p>Traditiona l Inspection</p><p>Result</p><p>W orker or</p><p>Machine Error</p><p>Don’t Do</p><p>Anything</p><p>Defective</p><p>Sort</p><p>At Other</p><p>Step</p><p>Discover</p><p>Error</p><p>Take Action/</p><p>Feedback</p><p>No</p><p>Defect</p><p>Source Inspection</p><p>“KEEP ERRORS FROM</p><p>TURN IN G IN TO DEFECTS”</p><p>Next</p><p>Step</p><p>Next</p><p>Step</p><p>Styles of Mistake Proofing</p><p>TURN IN G IN TO DEFECTS”</p><p>There are 2 states of a defect w hich are addressed w ith</p><p>ERROR ABOUT TO OCCUR</p><p>DEFECT ABOUT TO OCCUR</p><p>(Prediction)</p><p>ERROR HAS OCCURRED</p><p>DEFECT HAS OCCURRED</p><p>(Detection)</p><p>mistake proofing.</p><p>W ARN IN G SIGN AL</p><p>CON TROL / FEEDBACK</p><p>W ARN IN G SIGN AL</p><p>CON TROL / FEEDBACK</p><p>SHUTDOW N</p><p>(Stop Operation)</p><p>SHUTDOW N</p><p>(Stop Operation)</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>582</p><p>Mistake Proofing Devices Design</p><p>Defect Controls</p><p>Hints to help design a mistake proofing device:</p><p>– Simple</p><p>– Inex pensive</p><p>– Give prompt feedback</p><p>– Give prompt action (prevention)</p><p>– Focused applicationpp</p><p>– Have the right people’s input</p><p>BEST ...makes it impossible for errors to occur</p><p>BETTER ……allows for detection while error is being made</p><p>The very best approaches make creating a defect impossible, recall the gas hose example, you</p><p>can not put diesel fuel into an unleaded gas tank unless you really try hard or have a hammer.</p><p>GOOD ...detects defect before it continues to the next operation</p><p>Types of Mistake Proof Devices</p><p>Contact M ethod</p><p>– Physica l or energy contact</p><p>w ith product</p><p>• Limit sw itches</p><p>11 Guide Pins of</p><p>Different Sizes11 Guide Pins of</p><p>Different Sizes</p><p>• Photo-electric beams</p><p>Fix ed Value M ethod</p><p>– N umber of parts to be</p><p>a ttached/ assembled etc.</p><p>a re constant</p><p>– N umber of steps done</p><p>in operation</p><p>22 Error Detection</p><p>and Alarms</p><p>33 Limit Switches</p><p>22 Error Detection</p><p>and Alarms</p><p>33 Limit Switches</p><p>• Limit sw itches</p><p>M otion-step M ethod</p><p>– Checks for correct sequencing</p><p>– Checks for correct timing</p><p>• Photo-electric sw itches</p><p>and timers</p><p>44 Counters</p><p>55 Checklists</p><p>44 Counters</p><p>55 Checklists</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>583</p><p>Mistake Proofing Examples</p><p>Let’s consider</p><p>Defect Controls</p><p>Let s consider</p><p>examples of</p><p>mistake proofing</p><p>or Poka-Yoke</p><p>devices even in</p><p>the home. Have a</p><p>discussion about</p><p>them in the work</p><p>Everyday ex amples of mistake-proofing:</p><p>• Home</p><p>– Automated shutoffs on electric</p><p>coffee pots</p><p>– Ground fault circuit breakers for</p><p>ba throom in or outside electric</p><p>circuits</p><p>– Pilotless gas ranges and hot</p><p>• Automobile</p><p>– Seat belts</p><p>– Air bags</p><p>– Car engine w arning lights</p><p>• Office</p><p>– Spell check in w ord processing</p><p>softw are</p><p>Questioning “Do you w a nt toenvironment as</p><p>well.</p><p>ot ess gas a ges a d ot</p><p>w ater heaters</p><p>– Child proof caps on medica tions</p><p>– Butane lighters w ith sa fety</p><p>button</p><p>• Computers</p><p>– M ouse insertion</p><p>– USB cable connection</p><p>B tt i ti</p><p>– Questioning “Do you w a nt to</p><p>delete” after depressing the</p><p>“Delete” button on your</p><p>computer</p><p>• Factory</p><p>– Dual pa lm buttons a nd other</p><p>guards on machinery</p><p>• Reta il</p><p>– Tamper proof packaging</p><p>Advantages of Mistake Proofing as a Control Method</p><p>– Battery insertion</p><p>– Pow er save fea ture</p><p>M istake Proofing advantages include:</p><p>– Only simple tra ining programs are required</p><p>– Inspection operations are eliminated and the process is simplified</p><p>– Relieves operators from repetitive tasks of typica l visua l inspection</p><p>– Promotes crea tivity and va lue adding activities</p><p>– Results in defect free w ork</p><p>– Requires immedia te action w hen problems arise</p><p>– Provides 100% inspection interna l to the opera tion</p><p>The best resource for pictoria l ex amples of M istake Proofing is:</p><p>To see a much more in-depth review of improving the product or service quality by preventing defects</p><p>you MUST review the book shown here. A comprehensive 240 Poka-Yoke examples are shown and</p><p>can be applied to many industries. The Poka-Yoke’s are meant to address errors from processing,</p><p>Poka-Yoke: Improving Product Quality by Preventing Defects.</p><p>Overview by Hiroyuk i Hirano. Productivity Press, 1988 .)</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>can be applied to many industries. The Poka Yoke s are meant to address errors from processing,</p><p>assembly, mounting, insertion, measurement, dimensional, labeling, inspection, painting, printing,</p><p>misalignment and many other reasons.</p><p>584</p><p>Defect Prevention Culture and Good Control Plans</p><p>Defect Controls</p><p>I l i d f t tiInvolve everyone in defect prevention</p><p>– Establish process capability through SPC</p><p>– Establish and adhere to standard procedures</p><p>– M ake da ily improvements</p><p>– Invent M istake-proofing devices</p><p>M ake immediate feedback and action part of culture</p><p>Don’t just stop a t one mistake proofing device per product</p><p>Defect Prevention is needed for a ll potentia l defects</p><p>Class Exercise</p><p>Break into your groups and discuss mistake proofing systems</p><p>Defect Prevention implemented M UST be documented in your</p><p>living FM EA for the process/ product</p><p>Break into your groups and discuss mistake proofing systems</p><p>currently a t your facilities</p><p>Identify one automation ex ample and one process interruption</p><p>ex ample per group</p><p>Be prepared to present both ex amples to the class</p><p>Answ er the follow ing questions as part of the discussion and</p><p>presenta tion:</p><p>– How w as the need for the control system identified? If a</p><p>critica l X is mistake proofed, how w as it identified as being</p><p>critica l?</p><p>– How are they mainta ined?</p><p>– How are they verified as w ork ing properly?– How are they verified as w ork ing properly?</p><p>– Are they ever disabled?</p><p>You have 30 minutes!</p><p>Prepare a probable defect prevention method to apply to your</p><p>j t</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>project.</p><p>List any potential barriers to implementation.</p><p>585</p><p>At this point, you should be able</p><p>to:</p><p>Defect Controls</p><p>� Describe some methods of Defect Prevention</p><p>� Understand how these techniques can help with project</p><p>sustainability:</p><p>- Including reducing those outliers as seen in</p><p>the Advanced Process Capability section</p><p>- If the vital X was identified, prevent the cause</p><p>of defective Y</p><p>� Understand what tools must document the Defect Prevention</p><p>created in the Control Phase</p><p>You have now completed Control Phase – Defect Controls.</p><p>Notes</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>586</p><p>Lean Six Sigma</p><p>Black Belt Training</p><p>Control Phase</p><p>Statistical Process Control</p><p>Control Phase</p><p>Statistical Process Control</p><p>We will now continue in the Control Phase with “Statistical Process Control or SPC”.</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>587</p><p>Statistical Process Control</p><p>Overview</p><p>Advanced CapabilityAdvanced Capability</p><p>Advanced Ex perimentsAdvanced Ex periments</p><p>W elcome to ControlW elcome to Control</p><p>Si Si C t l PlSi Si C t l Pl</p><p>Defect ControlsDefect Controls</p><p>Lean ControlsLean Controls</p><p>Sta tistica l Process Control</p><p>(SPC)</p><p>Sta tistica l Process Control</p><p>(SPC)</p><p>MethodologyMethodology</p><p>Elements and PurposeElements and Purpose</p><p>Special Cause TestsSpecial Cause Tests</p><p>Statistical techniques can be used to monitor and manage process performance. Process</p><p>performance, as we have learned, is determined by the behavior of the inputs acting upon it in the</p><p>Six Sigma Control PlansSix Sigma Control Plans</p><p>W rap Up & Action ItemsW rap Up & Action Items</p><p>ExamplesExamples</p><p>form of Y=f(X). As a result it must be well understood that we can only monitor the performance of a</p><p>process output. Many people have applied Statistical Process Control (SPC) to only the process</p><p>outputs. Because they were using SPC, their expectations were high regarding a new potential level</p><p>of performance and control over their processes. However, because they only applied SPC to the</p><p>outputs, they were soon disappointed. When you apply SPC techniques to outputs, it is</p><p>appropriately called Statistical Process Monitoring or SPM.</p><p>You of course know that you can only control an output by controlling the inputs that exert anYou of course know that you can only control an output by controlling the inputs that exert an</p><p>influence on that output. This is not to say that applying SPC techniques to an output is bad, there</p><p>are valid reasons for doing this. Six Sigma has helped us all to better understand where to apply</p><p>such control techniques.</p><p>In addition to controlling inputs and monitoring outputs, control charts are used to determine the</p><p>Baseline performance of a process, evaluate measurement systems, compare multiple processes,</p><p>compare processes before and after a change, etc. Control Charts can be used in many situations</p><p>that relate to process characterization analysis and performancethat relate to process characterization, analysis and performance.</p><p>To better understand the role of SPC techniques in Six Sigma, we will first investigate some of the</p><p>factors that influence processes, then review how simple probability makes SPC work and finally</p><p>look at various approaches to monitoring and controlling a process.</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>588</p><p>SPC Overview: Collecting Data</p><p>Statistical Process Control</p><p>P l tiControl Charts are usually derived Popula tion:</p><p>– An entire group of objects that have been made or will be</p><p>made containing a characteristic of interest</p><p>Sample:</p><p>– A sample is a subset of the population of interest</p><p>– The group of objects actually measured in a statistical</p><p>study</p><p>– Samples are used to estimate the true population</p><p>parameters</p><p>Control Charts are usually derived</p><p>from samples taken from the</p><p>larger population. Sampling must</p><p>be collected in such a way that it</p><p>does not bias or distort the</p><p>interpretation of the Control Chart.</p><p>The process must be allowed to</p><p>operate normally when taking a</p><p>Popula tion</p><p>Sample</p><p>Sample</p><p>Sample</p><p>Popula tion</p><p>SampleSample</p><p>SampleSample</p><p>SampleSample</p><p>sample. If there is any special</p><p>treatment or bias given to the</p><p>process over the period the data is</p><p>collected, the Control Chart</p><p>interpretation will be invalid. The</p><p>frequency of sampling depends on</p><p>the volume of activity and the</p><p>ability to detect trends and</p><p>you should error on the side of taking extra samples, and then, if the process demonstrates its ability to</p><p>stay in control, you can reduce the sampling rate.</p><p>Using rational subgroups is a common way to assure that this does not happen. A rational subgroup is a</p><p>sample of a process characteristic in which all the items in the sample were produced under very similar</p><p>conditions and in a relatively short time period. Rational subgroups are usually small in size, typically</p><p>consisting of 3 to 5 units to make up the sample It is important that rational subgroups consist of units</p><p>ability to detect trends and</p><p>patterns in the data. At the onset,</p><p>consisting of 3 to 5 units to make up the sample. It is important that rational subgroups consist of units</p><p>that were produced as closely as possible to each other, especially if you want to detect patterns, shifts</p><p>and drifts. If a machine is drilling 30 holes a minute and you wanted to collect a sample of hole sizes, a</p><p>good rational subgroup would consist of 4 consecutively drilled holes. The selection of rational subgroups</p><p>enables you to accurately distinguish Special Cause variation from Common Cause variation.</p><p>Make sure that your samples are not biased in any way, meaning that they are randomly selected. For</p><p>example, do not plot only the first shift’s data if you are running multiple shifts. Don’t look at only one</p><p>vendor’s material if you want to know how the overall process is really running. Finally, don’t concentrate</p><p>on a specific time to collect your samples; like just before the lunch break.</p><p>If your process consists of multiple machines, operators or other process activities that produce streams</p><p>of the same output characteristic you want to control, it would be best to use separate Control Charts for</p><p>each of the output streams.</p><p>If the process is stable and in control, the sample observations will be randomly distributed around the y</p><p>average. Observations will not show any trends or shifts and will not have any significant outliers from the</p><p>random distribution around the average. This type of behavior is to be expected from a normally operating</p><p>process and that is why it is called Common Cause variation. Unless you are intentionally trying to</p><p>optimize the performance of a process to reduce variation or change the average, as in a typical Six</p><p>Sigma project, you should not make any adjustments or alterations to the process if it is demonstrating</p><p>only Common Cause variation. That can be a big time saver since it prevents “wild goose chases.”</p><p>If Special Cause variation occurs you must investigate what created it and find a way to prevent it from</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>If Special Cause variation occurs, you must investigate what created it and find a way to prevent it from</p><p>happening again. Some form of action is always required to make a correction and to prevent future</p><p>occurrences.</p><p>589</p><p>SPC Overview: I-MR Chart</p><p>Statistical Process Control</p><p>• An I-M R Chart combines a Control Chart of the average moving range w ith the</p><p>individua ls Chart.</p><p>• You can use Individua ls Ccharts to track the process level and to detect the</p><p>presence of specia l causes w hen the sample size is 1 .</p><p>• Seeing both charts together a llow s you to track both the process level and process</p><p>varia tion at the same time, providing greater sensitivity tha t can help detect the</p><p>presence of specia l causes.</p><p>Individuals ChartIndividuals Chart</p><p>-4</p><p>-3</p><p>-2</p><p>-1</p><p>0</p><p>1</p><p>2</p><p>3</p><p>4</p><p>1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30</p><p>Observation</p><p>M</p><p>ea</p><p>su</p><p>re</p><p>Data</p><p>LCL</p><p>Xbar</p><p>UCL</p><p>Individuals Chart</p><p>-4</p><p>-3</p><p>-2</p><p>-1</p><p>0</p><p>1</p><p>2</p><p>3</p><p>4</p><p>1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8</p><p>9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30</p><p>Observation</p><p>M</p><p>ea</p><p>su</p><p>re</p><p>Data</p><p>LCL</p><p>Xbar</p><p>UCL</p><p>MRbar Chart</p><p>0</p><p>1</p><p>2</p><p>3</p><p>4</p><p>5</p><p>1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30</p><p>Observation</p><p>R</p><p>an</p><p>ge</p><p>Range</p><p>LCL</p><p>Rbar</p><p>UCL</p><p>MRbar Chart</p><p>0</p><p>1</p><p>2</p><p>3</p><p>4</p><p>5</p><p>1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30</p><p>Observation</p><p>R</p><p>an</p><p>ge</p><p>Range</p><p>LCL</p><p>Rbar</p><p>UCL</p><p>Individuals (I) and Moving Range (MR) Charts are used when each measurement represents one</p><p>batch. The subgroup size is equal to one when I-MR Charts are used. These charts are very</p><p>simple to prepare and use. The graphic shows the Individuals Chart where the individual</p><p>measurement values are plotted with the Center Line being the average of the individual</p><p>measurements. The Moving Range Chart shows the range between two subsequent</p><p>measurements.measurements.</p><p>There are certain situations when opportunities to collect data are limited or when grouping the</p><p>data into subgroups simply doesn't make practical sense. Perhaps the most obvious of these</p><p>cases is when each individual measurement is already a rational subgroup. This might happen</p><p>when each measurement represents one batch, when the measurements are widely spaced in</p><p>time or when only one measurement is available in evaluating the process. Such situations include</p><p>destructive testing, inventory turns, monthly revenue figures and chemical tests of a characteristic</p><p>in a large container of materialin a large container of material.</p><p>All of these situations indicate a subgroup size of one. Because this chart is dealing with individual</p><p>measurements it, is not as sensitive as the X-Bar Chart in detecting process changes.</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>590</p><p>SPC Overview: Xbar-R Chart</p><p>Statistical Process Control</p><p>If each of your observations consists of a subgroup of data, rather than just individual</p><p>measurements, an Xbar-R Chart providers greater sensitivity. Failure to form rational</p><p>subgroups correctly will make your Xbar-R Charts dangerously wrong.</p><p>Xbar Chart</p><p>1</p><p>1.5</p><p>1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30</p><p>Subgroup</p><p>Xbar Chart</p><p>0 5</p><p>1</p><p>1.5</p><p>1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30</p><p>Subgroup</p><p>Xbar</p><p>-2</p><p>-1.5</p><p>-1</p><p>-0.5</p><p>0</p><p>0.5</p><p>Xb</p><p>ar</p><p>Xbar</p><p>LCL</p><p>Xbarbar</p><p>UCL</p><p>-2</p><p>-1.5</p><p>-1</p><p>-0.5</p><p>0</p><p>0.5</p><p>Xb</p><p>ar</p><p>Xbar</p><p>LCL</p><p>Xbarbar</p><p>UCL</p><p>Rbar Chart</p><p>1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30</p><p>Subgroup</p><p>Rbar Chart</p><p>1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30</p><p>Subgroup</p><p>An XBar-R Chart is used primarily to monitor and control the stability of the average value. The XBar</p><p>0</p><p>1</p><p>2</p><p>3</p><p>4</p><p>5</p><p>6</p><p>1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30</p><p>R</p><p>ba</p><p>r</p><p>Rbar</p><p>LCL</p><p>Rbar</p><p>UCL</p><p>0</p><p>1</p><p>2</p><p>3</p><p>4</p><p>5</p><p>6</p><p>R</p><p>ba</p><p>r</p><p>Rbar</p><p>LCL</p><p>Rbar</p><p>UCL</p><p>p y y g</p><p>Chart plots the average values of each of a number of small sampled subgroups. The averages of the</p><p>process subgroups are collected in sequential, or chronological, order from the process. The XBar</p><p>Chart, together with the R Chart shown, is a sensitive method to identify assignable causes of product</p><p>and process variation and gives great insight into short-term variations.</p><p>These charts are most effective when they are used together. Each chart individually shows only a</p><p>portion of the information concerning the process characteristic. The upper chart shows how the</p><p>process average (central tendency) changes The lower chart shows how the variation of the processprocess average (central tendency) changes. The lower chart shows how the variation of the process</p><p>has changed.</p><p>It is important to control both the process average and the variation separately because different</p><p>corrective or improvement actions are usually required to effect a change in each of these two</p><p>parameters.</p><p>The R Chart must be in control in order to interpret the averages chart because the Control Limits are</p><p>calculated considering both process variation and center When the R Chart is not in control thecalculated considering both process variation and center. When the R Chart is not in control, the</p><p>control limits on the averages chart will be inaccurate and may falsely indicate an out of control</p><p>condition. In this case, the lack of control will be due to unstable variation rather than actual changes</p><p>in the averages.</p><p>XBar and RBar Charts are often more sensitive than I-MR, but are frequently done incorrectly. The</p><p>most common error is failure to perform rational sub-grouping correctly.</p><p>A rational subgroup is simply a group of items made under conditions that are as nearly identical as</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>A rational subgroup is simply a group of items made under conditions that are as nearly identical as</p><p>possible. Five consecutive items, made on the same machine, with the same setup, the same raw</p><p>materials and the same operator, are a rational subgroup. Five items made at the same time on</p><p>different machines are not a rational subgroup. Failure to form rational subgroups correctly will make</p><p>your XBar-R Charts dangerously wrong.</p><p>591</p><p>SPC Overview: U Chart</p><p>Statistical Process Control</p><p>• C Charts and U Charts are for tracking defects.</p><p>• A U Chart can do everything a C Chart can, so we’ll just learn how to do a U</p><p>Chart. This chart counts flaws or errors (defects). One “search area” can have</p><p>more than one flaw or error.</p><p>• Search area (unit) can be practically anything we wish to define. W e can look</p><p>for typographical errors per page, the number of paint blemishes on a truck</p><p>door or the number of bricks a mason drops in a workdaydoor or the number of bricks a mason drops in a workday.</p><p>• You supply the number of defects on each unit inspected.</p><p>U Chart</p><p>0.8</p><p>1</p><p>1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30</p><p>Sample</p><p>DPU</p><p>U Chart</p><p>0.8</p><p>1</p><p>1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30</p><p>Sample</p><p>DPU</p><p>The U Chart plots defects per unit data collected from subgroups of equal or unequal sizes. The “U”</p><p>in U Charts stands for defects per Unit U Charts plot the proportion of defects that are occurring</p><p>0</p><p>0.2</p><p>0.4</p><p>0.6</p><p>D</p><p>PU</p><p>DPU</p><p>LCL</p><p>Ubar</p><p>UCL</p><p>0</p><p>0.2</p><p>0.4</p><p>0.6</p><p>D</p><p>PU</p><p>LCL</p><p>Ubar</p><p>UCL</p><p>in U Charts stands for defects per Unit. U Charts plot the proportion of defects that are occurring.</p><p>The U Chart and the C Chart are very similar. They both are looking at defects but the U Chart does</p><p>not need a constant sample size like the sample size like the C Chart. The Control Limits on the U</p><p>Chart vary with the sample size and therefore they are not uniform, similar to the P Chart which we</p><p>will describe next.</p><p>Counting defects on forms is a common use for the U Chart. For example, defects on insurance</p><p>claim forms are a problem for hospitals Every claim form has to be checked and corrected beforeclaim forms are a problem for hospitals. Every claim form has to be checked and corrected before</p><p>going to the insurance company. When completing a claim form, a particular hospital must fill in 13</p><p>fields to indicate the patient’s name, social security number, DRG codes and other pertinent data. A</p><p>blank or incorrect field is a defect.</p><p>A hospital measured their invoicing performance by calculating the number of defects per unit for</p><p>each day’s processing of claims forms. The graph demonstrates their performance on a U Chart.</p><p>f C fThe general procedure for U Charts is as follows:</p><p>1. Determine purpose of the chart</p><p>2. Select data collection point</p><p>3. Establish basis for sub-grouping</p><p>4. Establish sampling interval and determine sample size</p><p>5. Set up forms for recording and charting data and write specific instructions on</p><p>use of the chart</p><p>6 Collect and record data</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>6. Collect and record data.</p><p>7. Count the number of nonconformities for</p><p>each of the subgroups</p><p>8. Input into Excel or other statistical software.</p><p>9. Interpret chart together with other pertinent sources of information on the process</p><p>and take corrective action if necessary</p><p>592</p><p>SPC Overview: P Chart</p><p>Statistical Process Control</p><p>• NP Charts and P Charts are for tracking defectives.</p><p>• A P Chart can do everything an NP Chart can, so we’ll just learn how to do</p><p>a P Chart!</p><p>• Used for tracking defectives – the item is either good or bad, pass or fail,</p><p>accept or reject.</p><p>• Centerline is the proportion of “ rejects” and is also your process capability.</p><p>• Input to the P Chart is a series of integers — number bad, number rejected.</p><p>In addition, you must supply the sample size.</p><p>P Chart</p><p>0 35</p><p>1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30</p><p>Sample</p><p>P)</p><p>P Chart</p><p>0.35</p><p>1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30</p><p>Sample</p><p>(P</p><p>)</p><p>Th P Ch l h i f f i i ll d f b f l</p><p>0</p><p>0.05</p><p>0.1</p><p>0.15</p><p>0.2</p><p>0.25</p><p>0.3</p><p>0.35</p><p>Pr</p><p>op</p><p>or</p><p>tio</p><p>n</p><p>D</p><p>ef</p><p>ec</p><p>tiv</p><p>e</p><p>(P</p><p>P</p><p>LCL</p><p>Pbar</p><p>UCL</p><p>0</p><p>0.05</p><p>0.1</p><p>0.15</p><p>0.2</p><p>0.25</p><p>0.3</p><p>Pr</p><p>op</p><p>or</p><p>tio</p><p>n</p><p>D</p><p>ef</p><p>ec</p><p>tiv</p><p>e</p><p>P</p><p>LCL</p><p>Pbar</p><p>UCL</p><p>The P Chart plots the proportion of nonconforming units collected from subgroups of equal or</p><p>unequal size (percent defective). The proportion of defective units observed is obtained by dividing</p><p>the number of defective units observed in the sample by the number of units sampled. P Charts</p><p>name comes from plotting the Proportion of defectives. When using samples of different sizes, the</p><p>upper and lower Control Limits will not remain the same - they will look uneven as exhibited in the</p><p>graphic. These varying Control Chart limits are effectively managed by Control Charting software.</p><p>A common application of a P Chart is when the data is in the form of a percentage and the sample pp p g p</p><p>size for the percentage has the chance to be different from one sample to the next. An example</p><p>would be the number of patients that arrive late each day for their dental appointments. Another</p><p>example is the number of forms processed daily that had to be reworked due to defects. In both of</p><p>these examples, the total quantity would vary from day to day.</p><p>The general procedure for P Charts is as follows:</p><p>1. Determine purpose of the chart</p><p>2 Select data collection point2. Select data collection point</p><p>3. Establish basis for sub-grouping</p><p>4. Establish sampling interval and determine sample size</p><p>5. Set up forms for recording and charting data and write specific instructions on</p><p>use of the chart</p><p>6. Collect and record data. It is recommended that at least 20 samples be used to</p><p>calculate the Control Limits</p><p>7. Compute P, the proportion nonconforming for each of the subgroups</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>8. Load data into Excel or other statistical software</p><p>9. Interpret chart together with other pertinent sources of information on the</p><p>process and take corrective action if necessary</p><p>593</p><p>SPC Overview: Control Methods/Effectiveness</p><p>Statistical Process Control</p><p>Type 1 Corrective Action = Countermeasure: improvement made to the process</p><p>which will eliminate the error condition from occurring. The defect will never be created.</p><p>This is also referred to as a long-term corrective action in the form of mistake proofing or</p><p>design changes.</p><p>Type 2 Corrective Action = Flag: improvement made to the process which will</p><p>detect when the error condition has occurred. This flag will shut down the equipment so</p><p>that the defect will not move forward.</p><p>SPC X’ Y’ ith f ll t i d t d t ff h t th l OSPC on X’s or Y’s with fully trained operators and staff who respect the rules. Once a</p><p>chart signals a problem everyone understands the rules of SPC and agrees to shut down</p><p>for special cause identification. (Cpk > certain level).</p><p>Type 3 Corrective Action = Inspection: implementation of a short-term containment</p><p>which is likely to detect the defect caused by the error condition. Containments are</p><p>typically audits or 100% inspection.</p><p>SPC on X’s or Y’s with fully trained operators. The operators have been trained and</p><p>understand the rules of SPC but management will not empower them to stop forunderstand the rules of SPC, but management will not empower them to stop for</p><p>investigation.</p><p>S.O.P. is implemented to attempt to detect the defects. This action is not sustainable</p><p>short-term or long-term.</p><p>SPC on X’s or Y’s without proper usage. = W ALL PAPER.</p><p>The most effective form of control is called a type 1 corrective action This is a control applied to theThe most effective form of control is called a type 1 corrective action. This is a control applied to the</p><p>process which will eliminate the error condition from occurring. The defect can never happen. This is</p><p>the “prevention” application of the Poka-Yoke method.</p><p>The second most effective control is called a type 2 corrective action. This a control applied to the</p><p>process which will detect when an error condition has occurred and will stop the process or shut</p><p>down the equipment so that the defect will not move forward. This is the “detection” application of</p><p>the Poka-Yoke method.</p><p>The third most effective form of control is to use SPC on the X’s with appropriate monitoring on the</p><p>Ys. To be effective, employees must be fully trained, they must respect the rules and management</p><p>must empower the employees to take action. Once a chart signals a problem, everyone understands</p><p>the rules of SPC and agrees to take emergency action for special cause identification and</p><p>elimination.</p><p>The fourth most effective correction action is the implementation of a short-term containment which</p><p>i lik l d h d f d b h di i C i i ll di 100%is likely to detect the defect caused by the error condition. Containments are typically audits or 100%</p><p>inspection.</p><p>Finally you can prepare and implement an S.O.P. (standard operating procedure) to attempt to</p><p>manage the process activities and to detect process defects. This action is not sustainable, either</p><p>short-term or long-term.</p><p>Do not do SPC for the sake of just saying that you do SPC. It will quickly deteriorate to a waste of</p><p>Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com</p><p>time and a very valuable process tool will be rejected from future use by anyone who was</p><p>associated with the improper use of SPC.</p><p>Using the correct level of control for an improvement to a process will increase the acceptance of</p><p>changes/solutions you may wish to make and it will sustain your improvement for the long-term.</p><p>594</p><p>Purpose of Statistical Process Control</p><p>Statistical Process Control</p><p>Every process has Causes of Varia tion know n as:</p><p>– Common Cause: N atura l variability</p><p>– Specia l Cause: Unnatura l variability</p><p>• Assignable: Reason for detected Variability</p><p>• Pattern Change: Presence of trend or unusual pattern</p><p>SPC is a basic tool to monitor and improve varia tion in a process.</p><p>SPC is used to detect specia l cause varia tion telling us the process</p><p>is “out of control” but does N OT tell us w hy.</p><p>SPC gives a glimpse of ongoing process capability AN D is a visual</p><p>management tool.</p><p>SPC has its uses because it is known that every process has known variation called Special Cause and</p><p>Common Cause variation. Special Cause variation is unnatural variability because of assignable causes</p><p>or pattern changes. SPC is a powerful tool to monitor and improve the variation of a process. This</p><p>powerful tool is often an aspect used in visual factories. If a supervisor or operator or staff is able to</p><p>quickly monitor how its process is operating by looking at the key inputs or outputs of the process this</p><p>management tool.</p><p>quickly monitor how its process is operating by looking at the key inputs or outputs of the process, this</p><p>would exemplify a visual factory.</p><p>SPC is used to detect Special Causes in order to have those operating the process find and remove the</p><p>Special Cause. When a Special Cause has been detected, the process is considered to be “out of</p>
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