GRAMATICA AVANÇADA EM LINGUA INGLESA - Sentence Types and Discourse Functions

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Sentence Types and Discourse Functions
Professor Diego Candido Abreu
Description
Theoretical overview of sentence types according to their discursive
functions, with emphasis on the concepts of question, directive sentence
and irregular sentence.
Purpose
The understanding of different sentence types organized according to
their discursive functions, as well as the grammatical, semantic, and
pragmatic rules that govern these sentences, by identifying the
discursive roles played by them will aid students in their grammar
studies.
Goals
Section 1
Questions
To recognize questions as a specific type of sentence.
Section 2
Directives
To identify the structure and discursive function of directive
sentences.
Section 3
Irregular sentences
To analyze irregular sentences grammatically and discursively.
Warm up
(1)
It was night yesterday
But the light ads sing
Trees are stretched
The wax statue of the hairdresser smiles at me
Forbidden to spit
No smoking
Sunshine in your hands you told me
There are fourteen
I invented unknown streets
New continents bloom
The newspapers will be leaving tomorrow
Beware of paint
I'll walk naked with my cane in my hand.
(SOUPAULT, 1919, p.10)
The poem presented above, written by Philippe Soupault (1919), is
a compilation of assorted sentences with apparently no
meaningful connection among each other. It illustrates quite well

the self-sufficiency of the sentence structure: although all the
verses in the poem are semantically insulated, one can still grasp
the meaning of all sentences within the text.
Soupault’s poem presents a vast variety of sentence types: noun
phrases, declarative sentences, imperative sentences, and
directive sentences. Each of these sentence types is based on
different grammatical structures and performs distinct discursive
roles.
In this Unit, we will talk about some of the most important
sentence types: interrogative sentences (questions), directive
sentences, and irregular sentences. Besides analyzing their
grammatical and syntactic structure, we will also cover the
discursive roles played by these kinds of sentence, pointing out
the communicative purposes they fulfill.
1 - Questions
By the end of this section, you will be able to recognize questions as a speci�c type of
sentence.
Sentences: de�nition, typology, and
discursive function
The main object of this section is questions or, as we may also call them,
interrogative sentences. However, to cover properly this subject, first, we
have to understand the basic structure of a sentence, as well as the
different ways of classifying it according to its form and the discursive
role played by them.
The first step in the journey of understanding the concept of a sentence
is presenting a definition of it.
Thus, sentences can be de�ned as the largest unit of
grammar (CARTER; MCCARTHY, 2006).
Smaller units such as words, phrases, and clauses bind together in order
to form richer and more complex messages, integrated into sentences.
From a top-down perspective, sentences can be seen as a combination
of clauses, being mandatory the presence of at least one clause within
the sentence.
There are fundamentally three types of clauses:

Main clauses

Dependent clauses

Independent clauses
These kinds of clausal structures can be built up into a sentence mainly
through two different processes: coordination and subordination.
Do you remember these two processes? Well, let’s recap!
In the former, two main clauses are bound by a coordinating conjunction
(and, but, etc.). In the latter, the main clause is bound to a dependent
clause through the employment of a subordinator (although, since,
despite etc.) The same idea may be expressed both by coordination and
subordination.
Image, for instance, that we want to combine two different ideas: I want
to travel / I don’t have money. If we decide to use the coordinating
conjunction but, the two clauses will be combined by means of
coordination, as two independent clauses – I want to travel but I don’t
have money.
If, on the other hand, we prefer to use the subordinator although both
clauses will be combined by a different process: subordination. In this
case, the two clauses will no longer be able to stand alone, as one will be
dependent on the other – Although I want to travel, I don’t have money. If I
say the clause Although I want to travel, my interlocutor will sense that
there is something missing, the clause is not able to stand alone and
needs to be completed.
Types of Sentences
Now that we have covered how sentences are formed, let’s discuss the
different types of sentences. How are sentences classed?
Sentences can be typified according to two criteria: their form and their
discourse function. According to their formal aspects, sentences are
seen as:
Simple
Simple sentences are the ones composed of only one main
clause. Examples of this kind of sentence are presented below:
(2)
John reads the newspaper.
Mary cooks dinner every day.
My father and my uncle went out to fish.
Compound
Compound sentences, on the other hand, are formed by the
binding of two independent clauses. Look at the examples
below:
(3)
My sister invited me to her party, but I declined the invitation.
My wife and I went out to the movies and had dinner afterward.
Complex
Complex sentences are the ones formed by one main clause
and one (or more) dependent clauses. Look at the following
examples:
(4)
Although James loves Jazz, his girlfriend makes him listen to
Rock N’ Roll.
Larry, who is allergic to shrimp, was invited to a fish bar.
Another way of classifying sentences is through the criteria of their
discourse role. In order to do so, we must know the main discourse
functions performed by a sentence. According to Quirk et al. (1985), they
are:
Statement
To convey information.
Question
To seek information.
Directive
To instruct someone to do something.
Exclamation
To express the impression the speaker has regarding something.
Based on these different discursive functions, sentences can be seen as:
Declarative (to convey statements)
(5)
I am feeling very sick today.
Interrogative (to ask questions)
(6)
Where is your school?
Exclamative (to convey exclamation)
(7)
What a horrible behavior you are displaying today!
Directive (to convey imperatives)
(8)
Go clean up the mess you left in your room.
Echo utterances (to convey these functions but with
shorter form based on repetition)
(9)
I don’t like your sister
You don’t like her?
Irregular (to convey some of these same functions but
with irregular forms)
(10)
So help me God to do it.
Presented the different types of sentences according to their form and
function, in the following sub-section, we turn our attention to the object
of this section, interrogative sentences, highlighting its most common
form: yes-no question.
Sentences: de�nition and types
What are sentences? Which types of sentences do you know? Well, this
video is all about sentences!
Yes-No Questions
Function and Form
Interrogative sentences are usually classified into three major types:

Yes-no questions

Wh-questions

Alternative questions
In the following pages, these three kinds of interrogative sentences will
be covered in detail.

As highlighted by Quirk et al. (1985), Yes-no questions can
be de�ned both functionally and formally.
In terms of function, these interrogative sentences are the ones that
conditionate an affirmation, negation, or some sort of modality between
both poles.
Formally, questions are constructed through the placement of the
sentence operator before the subject. In most cases, this role is played
by the virtual operator Do, being an exception sentences whose core is
another auxiliary verb (have, be, can). Another important formal trait of
yes-no interrogative sentences is the rising pitch at the end of the
utterance in oral conversation or the question mark in written texts.Look at the following examples of yes-no questions:
(11a)
Your sister can play the violin.
Can your sister play the violin?
(11b)
Jane has left the room already.
Has jane left the room already?
Positive and Negative Yes-No Questions
Generally speaking, positive yes-no questions can be classified as
conducive or neutral according to their grammatical composition.
Neutral positive yes-no questions are usually built by
nonassertive words, such as any, ever, yet, etc. Take a look at the
following examples of positive yes-no questions:
(12)
Can anyone please help me with my luggage?
Has anybody ever turned this thing on?
Conducive positive yes-no questions, on the other hand, induce
the interlocutor to utter a positive or negative answer. This
induction is produced using assertive forms, creating a certain
semantic bias in the meaning of the interrogative sentence.
Examples of this type of conducive question are presented
below:
(13a)
Are you really willing to act like this? (negative conduction)
(13b)
Do you live near my aunt’s place? (positive conduction)
Negative yes-no questions, unlike positive ones, are always conducive,
that is, they always induce a negative answer. Formally, this type of
question is produced in the same way as the positive yes-no question.
The only main difference between both structures is the addition of a
negative term in the negative questions; most commonly the word not
playing the role of negation. However, other forms such as never,
nobody, no one, etc. can be employed with the same purpose. Examples
of negative yes-no questions are presented below:
(14)
Aren’t you coming to my party tomorrow?
Has my daughter never come to watch any class?
Neutral 
Conducive 
In some specific cases, yes-no questions can be formed with no
observance of the subject-operator inversion rule. These types of
interrogative sentences are called declarative questions (QUIRK et al.,
1985).
Declarative questions are always conducive, inducing the
interlocutor to a certain biased answer.
Considering the lack of its characteristic formal structure, declarative
questions are fundamentally determined by the presence of a rising
pitch at the end of the utterance. Below, some examples of declarative
yes-no questions are highlighted:
(15a)
You have really bought this cheap backpack?
(15b)
You still haven’t got anything to eat?
Tag Questions
Just like other types of interrogative sentences, tag questions can be
defined in terms of their function or form.
Functionally, tag questions are short interrogative utterances, placed
after a declarative sentence, which display a high level of
conduciveness. This inductive power lies both in its short structure
(rhetorically efficient) and in the fact that the tag question comes after a
straight declaration, reinforcing it. In terms of form, tag questions are
grammatically modeled in a specific way, as we can see below:
Operator + negative particle (if applied) + subject +
question mark
This general structure of tag questions tends also to obey another rule:
when the declarative sentence preceding the question is positive, the tag
question tends to be negative; when the declarative sentence is negative,
the tag question tends to be positive, as we can see in the examples
below:
(16a)
You have visited your mother during last year’s vacation, haven’t you?
(16b)
I bet you haven’t finished your errands, have you?
Yes-No Questions: positive, negative
and tag questions
When are yes-no questions used? And what for? Watch this video to
learn more about these types of sentences.
Wh-Questions

Wh-questions can be defined either formally or functionally. From the
former point of view, these interrogative sentences are built with the
employment of wh-words (also called interrogative words). Below, we
have a list of these words:
What – when – where – which – how – why – who – whom –
whose
In addition to the use of the wh-words, the same rule of operator-subject
inversion also applies to the wh-questions. Another important formal
feature of this type of interrogative sentence is the presence of a falling
pitch at the end of the utterance, a characteristic that differs from yes-no
questions. Regarding the general form of the wh-questions, look at the
following examples:
(17)
What is the name of your English teacher?
Where does your girlfriend live?
Who was the greatest football player of all time, in your opinion?
In terms of syntactic function, wh-questions can play a variety of roles.
Some of them are listed below:
Subject
Who has opened the door?
Direct Object
Which of those boys have you hired to work with you?
Indirect Object
Who did you buy the camera to?
Subject Complement
What is this book like?
Object Complement
How large was the table they have built?
Adverbial Adjunct
How many hours will this class last?
Just like yes-no questions, wh-questions can also be divided into
negative and positive ones. Their structure is basically the same, with
the only difference being that the negative form has the addition of a
negative particle within it. Some examples of both types of wh-questions
are presented below:
(18a)
Who was the winner of the lottery Prize this year?
(18b)
Who hasn’t had my cake yet?
Alternative Questions
As highlighted by Quirk et al. (1985), there are basically two types of
alternative questions. The first kind is based on the same grammatical
structure as yes-no questions. The main difference between the
alternative interrogative sentence and the plain yes-no question is the
presentation of a series of alternative options, which can be accepted or
denied, in part or totally. Take a look at the examples below:
(19)
Do you like to work out in the morning, afternoon, or evening?
Do you have a favorite short-story author or not?
Do you prefer your coffee with milk, vanilla or cream?
Comments
Yes-no alternative questions can be seen as highly restrictive and
conducive, since they limit the array of possible answers of the
interrogation to a certain number of options. The interlocutor either must
choose among the alternatives presented in the utterance or to deny the
content of the sentence as a whole.
The other type of alternative question resembles the basic structure of
the wh-questions. Alternative wh-questions are compound questions
presented in the same utterance, being the alternative question a
complement of the first wh-question. Read the following examples:
(20)
Which of the following flavors of soda is your favorite: coke, orange or
apple?
Which of the students in our club was called to serve in the army?
Thomas, John or Steve?
In 20, we can see two possible ways of compounding the wh-question
with the alternative elliptical question. This distinction in punctuation
only makes sense in written discourse, since, in oral discourse, the link
between both sentences is made clear by the unity of the utterance.
Wh-questions and Alternative
Questions
What’s the difference between wh-questions and yes-no questions? Give
this video a watch for more on questions.
You are very close to reaching your goals.
Let’s practice!
Question 1
Sentences can be typified according to their form or discursive
function. In terms of form, sentences can be simple, compound or

complex. In terms of function, they can be declarative, interrogative,
exclamative, directive, echo utterance or irregular. Based on this
typology, read the sentence below:
Work hard every day but don’t forget to enjoy your life.
Which of the options below presents a proper classification of the
sentence above according to both the formal and functional
criteria?
Parabéns! A alternativa D está correta.
When two independent sentences are bound together by a
coordinator, we classify them as compounds. When the sentence
establishes an order, command, or instruction, we call it a directive.
Therefore, D is the correct answer.
Question2
Interrogative sentences are constructions that play the role of
questions, seeking information through language. Based on this
definition, read the sentence below:
Which of these types of dessert is your favorite: cake, ice cream or
candy?
Which of the following options presents a correct classification of
the sentence above?
A Complex and declarative.
B Compound and exclamative.
C Simple and declarative.
D Compound and directive.
E Compound and irregular.
Parabéns! A alternativa B está correta.
Alternative wh- questions are composed of two interrogative
sentences: an wh-question and an elliptical alternative question.
Therefore, B is the correct answer.
2 - Directives
By the end of this section, you will be able to identify the structure and discursive function of
directive sentences.
A Tag question
B Alternative wh-question
C Wh-question
D Alternative yes-no question
E Yes-no question
Structure and types of directives
Structure of directives
Before we move on, just think about a very famous song by the band
Queen: Don’t stop me now! You probably know the song well, if you don’t,
just give it a listen. Check the lyrics below:
Tonight I'm gonna have myself a real
good time
I feel alive
And the world I'll turn it inside out,
yeah
I'm floating around in ecstasy
So, (don't stop me now)
(Don't stop me)
'Cause I'm having a good time,
having a good time.
(QUEEN, 1979)
Now think: which function does the title perform? And how is it
structured? In this section, we will cover directive sentences by pointing
out the way they are structured and typified as well as discussing the
discursive roles they play.
But what are they?
As already highlighted, directives usually perform the function of making
people do things through language. They express different forms of
command, orientation, and instruction, having their form adapted to the
fulfillment of this role. In the song above: Don’t stop me now exemplifies
this type of sentence.
Let’s cover the structure and the different types of directive sentences in
some detail.
The easiest way to understand the way directive sentences are
structured is to compare them with declarative sentences. While the
latter has the subject as a mandatory element within the sentence
structure, the former usually appears without the presence of a subject.
In 21, we have an example with a comparison between both sentential
models:
Declarative sentence
(21a)
I (subject) take the
documents home.
Imperative sentence
(21b)
Take the documents
home.
Another important difference between both types of sentences lies in
the preference of imperatives for main verbs, avoiding modal verbs at
the base of the sentence. This occurs due to the semantic nature of the
imperative forms, conveying the notion of command and injunction,
ideas that clash with the modularization (attenuation) established by the
modal words.
Besides these important distinctions, as we could see in 21, imperative
and declarative sentences share the same structure, allowing the
relationship among the same elements within the sentence.
Imperative sentences, as declarative, can be constructed in the negative
form, by the addition of a negation marker. Take a look at 22.
(22)
Don’t underestimate your enemies.
Never give up of your dreams.
Don’t stop me now.
Types of directives
In terms of form and structure, directives can be classified into three
categories: imperatives without subject, imperatives with subject, and
imperatives with let. Each of these types of directives has specific forms
of conjugation and conveys different ideas. We will see them in detail.
The most common presentation of an imperative sentence is its form
without a subject. Take a look at the examples in 23.
(23)

Leave your hometown to go to a big city.
Spend your days with your kids.
Stop playing videogames all day long.
Brush your teeth and go to bed.
Some important traits of the subject-less imperative can be highlighted,
after reading the sentences in 23. Firstly, directives can only be
conjugated in the second person, as an interpellation to an interlocutor.
As an injunction, imperative sentences are usually uttered addressing
someone who is in the same communicative environment as the
speaker/writer.
Another important trait of this type of directive is that, although
prescinding a subject, they can carry vocatives, which are words used to
indicate who is being targeted by the imperative form in situations of
possible ambiguity. Read the examples below:
(24)
James, go clean the mess in your bedroom.
Stop playing with your sister, Bob.
Sheila, do your homework now.
Imperatives can also be constructed with the addition of a subject form,
as we can see in the examples below:
(25)
You stop fooling around.
You shut up.
You wash the dishes.
Comments
In most cases, the subject chosen to complement the imperative is the
pronoun you. This is due to the fact that the subject-less imperatives,
intuitively, have you as an omitted subject.
In face of that, one may wonder: if the pronoun you is already included in
the subject-less imperative, why pronouncing it overtly?
The two main reasons for doing so are rhetorical persuasion and
differentiation. Examples of both forms of employment are presented
below:
(26)
Persuasion
You say that you can do
it all alone. Now, you do
it.
Differentiation
Your father was the one
to take out the trash.
You clean up the
basement.
Now, try one yourself!
Written Task
In the sentence: John stay, the rest of the class can go home!, why isn’t
the subject being omitted?
Type your answer here.
Chave de resposta


In the case above, even though there isn’t much information about
the context, we can infer by the word choice that a teacher is
addressing a group of students. Therefore, by not differentiating
who was dismissed and who should stay, all students would leave.
There is a need then to differentiate the orders: after all, who
should do what, when there are two commands? In this case, a
subject is needed.
Despite being most commonly constructed with the pronoun you,
imperative sentences with a subject can also be used with the third
person, using other types of subjects. Take a look at the examples
below:
(27)
Someone please come here.
Everyone stop making this noise.
All kids in the yard go to your classrooms.
However, when this happens, when a third-person subject (singular or
plural) is used, the verb remains in its base form: come, stop, go.
The third type of directive is the one conjugated in the first person. This
sort of conjugation is possible with the use of the word let. Semantically,
this verb addresses the interlocutor of the sentence (second person)
while the entire sentential structure has the first person as its addressee.
The most common occurrence of this type of imperative is in the let us
form – or, colloquially, with the abbreviation let’s. Read the examples in
34:
(28)
Let us go to my bachelor party.
Let’s call my sister to go with us.
Let’s have something to drink.
In some cases, the first-person imperative may also appear in the let me
form. In such a case, the directive does not include the interlocutor in the
command. Below, we have some examples.
(29)
Let me see what our resources are first.
Let me think it over before talking to him.
Let me help you.
Let's talk about directives!
In this video you will learn all about the structure and types of directives.
Stay tuned!

Discourse Function of Directives
As highlighted by Quirk et al. (1985), many are the discursive roles
played by directive sentences. In the following lines, these functions will
be explained and exemplified.
Order
Imperative forms are mostly used to express a command toward
someone. This command can be conveyed in a negotiated and pleading
way (characterizing an order) or in a straight-forward and injunctive
manner, characterizing a command.Below, we have examples of this
type of directive:
(30)
Please, take notes of what I’m going to talk about right now.
Go to your positions and prepare your guns!
Prohibition
A prohibition tends to be semantically like a command, the main
difference resides in the negative sense of the former. Therefore, a
prohibition is usually a command not to do something. This negative
command can be overtly expressed with the employment of negation
words (no, not, never) or indirectly conveyed with the use of prohibiting
verbs (stop, decline, etc.). Examples of this type of imperative can be
seen in 31.
(31)
Do not order food from that restaurant.
Never enter my room without permission.
Stop touching my personal objects.
Request
Requests can be understood as soft and mutually agreeing commands.
In many situations, requests can be expressed through the employment
of other sentential forms, like interrogatives (can you please pass me
the salt?) because, depending on the way the utterance is built, it can
sound rude, bossy, or unpleasant. Thus, requests constructed in the
imperative form are usually accompanied by mitigating expressions (like
please or if you don’t mind). In 32, we have examples of this type of
imperative sentence:
(32)
Close that window over there, please.
If you don’t mind, write down this information for me.
Invitation
Invitations can be understood as requests for a person to be present or
to participate in a certain community, practice, event, or behavior.
Therefore, its structure tends to be like the semantic form of a request.
However, in many situations, an invitation is seen as an act of generosity,
respect, or politeness. Therefore, the intimacy inspired by it can allow the
speaker/writer to use a more direct command, without the use of
mitigating words. Examples are presented below:
(33)
Take a seat here, please.
Get yourself a drink and make yourself comfortable.
Warning
Warnings can be framed as a recommendation (usually issued by
someone intimate with the addressee) or a threat. In both cases, it
resembles an attenuated form of prohibition; as if instead of saying don’t
do it, one said you shouldn’t do it. In 34, we have some examples of
warnings to illustrate this type of directive.
(34)
Take care of your belongings.
Respect my wife or you will face the consequences.
Suggestion
Suggestions are positive and, usually, friendly recommendations.
Therefore, their semantic structure is similar to this type of imperative.
Read the examples below:
(35)
Wear sunscreen when you go to the beach.
Don’t let your wallet so exposed when walking in this
neighborhood.
Don’t forget to take an umbrella.
Permission
Although it does not have an injunctive sense, permissions can be given
using directives since they are usually a response to a prior request.
Therefore, it does not sound rude or impolite because it is an agreement
with a previously stated utterance. Examples of permission are
presented below:
(36)
Go grab the snack you want.
Choose your favorite bikini in the store and take it to the cashier
Plea
A plea can be comprehended as a special type of request; one that
involves a high level of intensity and emotional commitment. In 37, we
have some examples of plea:
(37)
Help me, please.
I beg you: give me some money.
Self-determination
Self-determination is an injunctive discourse that is addressed to the
own speaker/writer with the aim of motivating him/her to do something
or to achieve some goal. Examples of this type of directive are presented
in 38:
(38)
Stop eating junkie food.
Relax! Stay calm!
Keep calm!
Instruction
An instruction is a type of command given in a pedagogical situation.
The legitimacy of the order lies in the authority of the speaker/writer as a
person knowing something that is in another person’s interest. Read the
examples in 39:
(39)
Turn the knob to the left.
Stir the flour with the liquid until making it homogenous
These types of directives are very common in user guides and recipes,
since these texts teach people how to do something, be it how to use an
appliance, or how to install one, or even how to cook a special meal. It is
not impolite to use directives then when instructing someone in
something. Notice that there is no need here to make use of mitigating
expressions, like please.
Quiz: discourse functions
Let’s practice the discourse function of directives!
You are very close to reaching your goals.
Let’s practice!
Question 1
Grammatically, directive sentences convey a variety of discursive
functions related to commands and requests. Based on this
definition, read the statements below and mark the option that
correctly characterizes directive sentences:

A
Directive sentences can only be conjugated in the
second person.
Parabéns! A alternativa E está correta.
Although directive sentences are usually conjugated in the second
person, they can also be formed in the first and third persons.
Therefore, E is the correct answer. The difference between
declarative and directive sentences is that declarative sentences
always have a subject, while directives are usually subject-less.
Directive can also be negative, prohibitions are great examples of
negative directives.
Question 2
Directive sentences can fulfill a variety of discourse functions.
Bearing it in mind, read the imperative sentence below:
For the love of God, save me.
What is the discursive function performed by the directive sentence
above:
B
The main difference between declarative and
directive sentences lies in the fact that the latter
never has subject while the former always has.
C
Due to its injunctive nature, directive sentences can
never be negative.
D
Directive sentences, although related to command
and request, can be used to express questions and
interrogations.
E
Directive sentences, although usually refer to the
second person (singular or plural), can refer to the
first and third persons as well.
A Plea
Parabéns! A alternativa A está correta.
A plea is a type of request that is based on an intense mobilization
of emotion and rhetorical moves. Therefore, the correct answer is A.
3 - Irregular Sentences
By the end of this section, you will be able to analyze irregular sentences grammatically and
discursively.
De�ning Irregular Sentences
In the previous sections, we covered a variety of sentence types that
were clearly defined based on well-established and coherent criteria.
However, these typologies are not capable of encompassing all different
B Order
C Request
D Permission
E Instruction
kinds of sentential structure. There are some exceptions to the rules
presented previously; and this section will be dedicated to them. We will
be discussing irregular sentences.
But what is an irregular sentence?
The only possible definition of irregular sentences is a
tautological one: irregular sentences are the ones that
lack a certain regularity according to the grammatical
criteria applied to the characterization of the
sentences.
They may have a syntactic structure that does not fit an established
pattern, or they may have so many variations that it becomes
problematic to set them in a certain sentential category. Below, we have
some examples of such sentences:
(40)
Neither do I.
If you want that, so be it.
How about a weekend at the mountain house?
In the first two sentences, we have a particular kind of syntactic
structure based on the subjunctive that allows an inversion of the regular
position of the subject. In the third sentence, we have a different way of
building questions with the use of wh-words; a way that differs quite
radically from the traditional wh-questions studied in section 1.
Quirk et al. (1985) sketched a tentative typology of the types of
irregularity one may see in this unstable class of irregular verbs.
According to the author, irregular verbs can express their irregularity in
basically threeforms:
They may present some forms that are not seen regularly in
other sentences, as we can see in 41.
(41)
May God bless America.
They portray a subordinate form, as we can see in 42.
(42)
Wish I had been out of here back then.
They present an elliptical form, omitting some elements that
are mandatory in other types of sentences. An example of this
type of irregular sentence is presented below:
(43)
So sorry about your loss.
Once we have already talked about the way irregular sentences turn
away from the patterns of regularity seen in other sentential structures,
let’s look at the different types of irregular sentences we have in English.
What are irregular sentences?
Let’s talk about irregular sentences!
Types of Irregular Sentences
Although irregular sentences, by definition, lack the regularity necessary
to conform a specific type of sentence, they can be grouped in some
categories, according to their traits and structure. In this sub-section, we
will discuss in some detail these specific types as well as exemplify
them.
Irregular sentences with optative subjunctive
Optative subjunctive sentences are archaic forms from older dialects of
English that survive in some expressions and sayings that have a very
fixed structure. It can be seen as a reminiscence of older grammatical
forms in contemporary English, being this the reason why these

structures are only found in some canonical expressions. In 44, we have
some examples of this type of irregular sentence.
(44)
Suffice it to say that all our purposes were declined.
Neither can I stop all this mess.
Both sentences present an odd structure when compared with the
predominant form of the subjunctive and indicative moods in English.
However, this same model cannot be generalized to other types of
analogous constructions.
Irregular Sentences with wh-questions
In spoken English, wh-questions assume a variety of forms that differ
from the regular wh-question structure. According to Quirk et al. (1985),
most of these sentences are a product of oral communication ellipsis,
that is, strategic cuts in the whole of the clause aiming to make talk
more dynamic. In 45, we have examples of irregular wh-questions:
(45)
How come that ending?
Why not buy a new car?
Irregular sentences based on subordinate clauses
Many subordinate clauses are built up into sentential structures that
challenge the regular form of these sentences. Usually, they are
employed to convey notions of exclamation and emotional discourse.
There are a variety of kinds of subordinate irregular sentences:
 The ones composed of that plus a full
clause
 The ones composed of to plus an in�nitive
clause
Some examples of these types of sentences are presented in 46:
(46)
Unbelievable! That I should put up with that!
Supposing you lose your job (…)
If only I had a house to live.
Irregular Aphoristic Sentences
Aphorisms are fixed sentences that usually compose sayings and
proverbs. their structure is based not only in syntactic rules but also in
the poetic rhythm of the utterance. Therefore, some of the constitutive
parts of a regular declarative or exclamative sentence are omitted in
order to balance the entire construction. In 47, we have some examples
of this type of aphoristic sentence:
(47)
The cheaper, the better
Rich father, poor son
Irregular sentences with subject-plus-complement structure
 In�nitive clauses introduced by oh
 Negative if clauses
 Subordinate clauses introduced by if only
 Subordinate clauses introduced by
supposing
There are a variety of clauses that are formed only by the subject or the
complement; and, in some cases, only by the complement. Most of them
would have an existential verb as their core (be, appear, etc.), being the
omission of this verb a rhetoric and informal resource used to make
even clearer the relationship of identity between subject and
complement. Examples of this type of construction are presented in 48:
(48)
Great, that amazing concert!
Awesome, what a game!
What a movie!
Irregular sentences with block language
Block language refers to a series of possible verbless constructions, in
which subject, adjunct and complement are blocked together as one
phrase. This type of structure is common in some specific genres and
forms of discourse, being easily found in headlines, advertisements,
labels and titles. Some examples of block language are presented in 49:
(49)
No pets without leash.
For rent.
Ten killed in car crash.
Abbreviated Irregular sentences
Abbreviated structures are proper of a variety of genres and discourse
situations, in which the abbreviation of the entire sentence becomes
legitimate due to space constraints or need for economy and speed.
Based on the typology proposed by Quirk et al. (1985), some types of
abbreviated sentence are presented in 50, as well as some examples of
this type of irregular sentence.
Abbreviated irregular sentence in instructional writing
(50a)
Screw the bolt and turn the knob several times.
Cook slowly to serve
Abbreviated irregular sentence in informal
conversation
(50b)
Don’t know anything about it.
Called me?
No way she did it.
Abbreviated irregular sentences in broadcast
commentaries
(50c)
Another player out.
Two goalies wounded.
Abbreviated elliptical sentences in oral conversation
(50d)
A: I’m out of here
B: Why?
A: No way I will stand this sort of behavior
B: Stand what behavior?
Irregular Sentences: types
The more, the merrier. How many sentences like this do you know? Do
you know this is actually an irregular sentence? But why is that? In this
video we will talk about the different types of irregular sentences.
Discursive Functions of Irregular
Sentences
As highlighted previously, there is a vast variety of types of irregular
sentences. It is also known that the existence of any grammatical form
responds to the need of expressing some sort of message or conveying
some sort of idea. Thus, through the analysis of the formal structure of a
certain grammatical item, we can infer its discursive function. In this
sub-section, we will look back at each type of irregular sentence
highlighted previously in order to examine the semantic and functional
role played by them.
Irregular sentences with optative subjunctive
Optative subjunctive irregular sentences perform basically two
discursive functions. As fixed forms from archaic English, they
play the rhetorical role of conveying a certain message in an
easily recognizable structure. On top of that, they also present a
shortened version of a regular sentence, being, thus, more

economic, and dynamic. In 51, we have examples of these
discursive functions being performed.
(51)
Long live the Empire. (rhetoric)
[May] God bless us all. (economy)
Irregular sentences with wh-questions
The main discursive function of the irregular wh-questions is to
convey ideas in a more dynamic way, especially in oral
communication. The omission of some elements within the
sentence helps to make the utterance faster and more eloquent
while maintaining basically the same meaning. Read the
example below:
(52)
How come you lost it? (economy)
Irregular sentences based on subordinate clauses
The most important discursive function played by these types
of irregular sentence is to increase the exclamatory or
emotional intensity of the utterance by adding an implied
clause within it. In 53, we have an example of this function
being performed.
(53)
That I told you and you still went there! Unbelievable!
(Rhetorical intensity)
Irregular aphoristic sentences
Aphoristic irregular sentences play the important role of
condensing a certain amount of information in smaller bits, that
can be more easily shared with others. They also add a poetic
feeling to the utterance, therefore, increasing the persuading
power of the sentence. Take a look at the following examples:
(54)
The greater, the better.
No pain,no gain.
The more, the merrier.
Irregular sentences with subject-plus-complement
structure
The main discursive function played by this type of irregular
sentence is the shortening of the original size of the utterance,
making it more dynamic and economic. Read the examples in
55:
(55)
Weird person, your friend.
Unbelievable, that crazy behavior.
Irregular sentences with block language
Block language usually appears in places where there is an
important space limitation or where language must be short
and direct. Objectiveness and condensation are, therefore, the
main discursive functions performed by these sentences. Read
the examples in 56:
(56)
No entrance.
No way out.
No smoking.
Abbreviated Irregular sentences
Abbreviated sentences also tend to appear in situations where
language has to be economic and dynamic in order to keep the
pace of fast conversation or to be more instructive and
pedagogical. Examples of abbreviated sentences playing their
discursive role are presented below:
(57)
Fast horse injury lethal.
Move scroll knob down.
Irregular sentences: their discursive
functions
The more, the merrier. What is the discursive function of this sentence?
Only rhetorical? Well, if you are still unsure, this video is definitely for you,
don’t go anywhere!
You are very close to reaching your goals.
Let’s practice!
Question 1
Irregular sentences can be defined as sentences whose structure
and semantic order cannot be characterized by the regular typology
of sentences. They may have this odd form due to demands
imposed by oral communication; or they may trace back to older
grammatical structures that were somehow preserved in
contemporary English. Based on this characterization of the
irregular sentences, read the sentence below:
What about you husband going out with his friends like this?
Which of the options below correctly typifies the highlighted
sentence?

A Irregular aphoristic sentence
B Irregular sentence with block language
Parabéns! A alternativa C está correta.
Irregular sentences based on wh-questions are informal structures,
used specially in oral communication, to convey a specific message
in a more dynamic and economic way. Therefore, C is the correct
answer to the question.
Question 2
Every grammatical form has its formal appearance explained by the
discursive function they fulfill. Thus, if one wants to understand why
a certain language form is the way it is, one may analyze its
functional role. Based on this theorization, read the statements
below:
I) This type of irregular sentence is usually employed in places or
channels where there is a limitation of space to be observed,
making the message shorter.
II) This type of irregular sentence has as its main role to increase the
exclamatory intensity of the utterance.
III) one of the main functions of this type of irregular sentence is to
convey a message in a more recognizable way through the
employment of a fixed and traditional expression.
Which of the options below describes in the correct order the types
of sentences whose discursive functions are presented above:
C Irregular sentence with wh-question
D Irregular sentence with optative subjunctive
E Abbreviated irregular sentence
A
I – abbreviated; II – wh-question; III – subordinate
clauses.
Parabéns! A alternativa B está correta.
Block language irregular sentences are the ones that are employed
in contexts of limited space. Subordinate clauses are usually
employed with the aim of increasing the exclamatory intensity of the
utterance. Finally, the optative subjunctive tends to be used to make
a certain message more easily recognizable using a fixed and
canonical expression. Therefore, B is the correct answer.
Final issues
Throughout this Unit, we have discussed some of the key concepts and
ideas that constitute the theoretical framework of different sentence
types, as well as the discursive functions performed by them,
characterizing their most relevant features and grammatical properties.
Three different categories of sentences (interrogative sentences,
directive sentences, and irregular sentences) were presented and
analyzed, being highlighted not only their grammatical constitution and
discursive function but their possible use in our daily operation with
language.
B
I – block language; II – subordinate clauses; III –
optative subjunctive.
C
I – wh-question; II – subordinate clauses; III – block
language.
D
I – block language; II – optative subjunctive; III –
aphoristic.
E I – wh-question; II – aphoristic; III – abbreviated.
Understanding in depth the way the distinct types of sentences mean in
the world and inscribing their meanings in some specific grammatical
forms can enhance our knowledge regarding the structure and
organization of language, as well as our capacity of communicating in
English. On top of that, being able to grasp the different types of
sentences that constitute the array of expressive tools in English can
make you more proficient in it, being able to see the linguistic tools
presented in this Unit as new instruments to make meaning in the world.
Podcast
Give this podcast a listen for more on sentence types and discourse
functions!

Go Further
To proceed with your studies regarding the structure and discursive
function of sentences, read the chapter Sentence connection, written by
Quirk and Greenbaum. In this text, the authors provide, in a simple and
pedagogical way, a theoretical explanation regarding the structure and
rules of formation of different types of sentences in English, as well as
their function in communication.
Quirk, R.; Greenbaum, S. A University Grammar of English. 7th
Impression, Pearson Education in South Asia, India, 2012.
References
CARTER, R., & McCARTHY, M. Cambridge grammar of English: A
comprehensive guide: Spoken and written English grammar and usage.
Cambridge: CUP, 2006. 
QUIRK et al. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language.
London: Pearson Longman, 1985. 
SOUPAULT, Philippe. Servitudes. (Poem) Dada, no. 4/5, 15 May 1919.
Published by Mouvement Dada. Zurich. Accessed: 9 December 2022.
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