Using Aggregate Project Planning to Link Strategy

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Harvard Business School 9-301-041
September 15, 2000
 
Professor Clayton M. Christensen prepared this note as the basis for class discussion rather than to illustrate either effective 
or ineffective handling of an administrative situation. 
Copyright © 2000 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College. To order copies or request permission to 
reproduce materials, call 1-800-545-7685 or write Harvard Business School Publishing, Boston, MA 02163. No 
part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, used in a spreadsheet, or transmitted in 
any form or by any means - electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise - without the 
permission of Harvard Business School. 
1 
Using Aggregate Project Planning to Link Strategy, 
Innovation, and the Resource Allocation Process 
Scholars of the strategy-making process fall into two broadly-defined camps. Those in one 
camp view strategy-making as a deliberate process in which managers, often aided by consultants, 
analyze markets, customers, competitors, technologies and the economics of a business, and define a 
strategic course of action for a company. In this view, strategy-making is an analytical project, 
followed by implementation. The other view is that strategy is an emergent understanding: strategy 
evolves from the cumulative impact of operating decisions taken by management. In this model, the 
role of senior managers in strategy-making consists of ex post recognition and rationalization of 
actions that a company has already taken.1 
Even the outspoken scholars at the extremes of these camps acknowledge that most strategies 
have deliberate and emergent elements to them. Managers attempt to see into the future and chart 
winning courses of action. But because the future can at best be seen only dimly, most companies’ 
strategies are also shaped by decisions about how to react to unforeseen events that are made at 
many levels of the organization. Many of the decisions which with the benefit of hindsight proved to 
be strategically pivotal ones, seemed at the time they were made to be tactical, with only short-term 
importance. 
In both of these models, strategy and innovation are two sides of the same coin. Deliberate, 
analytically formulated strategy can only be implemented through the stream of new products, 
services and processes that a company develops and introduces into its markets. And from the 
emergent side of the coin, the stream of products, processes and services that has flowed into the 
marketplace from a company's response to suggestions by competitors, salespeople, customers and 
engineers is the most tangible manifestation of what that firm’s strategy actually has been. In some 
instances -- especially during the initial phases of an organization's life -- managers must let a viable 
strategy emerge. There is strong evidence that analytical processes are almost always misleading at 
 
1 The characterization of emergent versus deliberate strategy was first articulated in Mintzberg, Henry and James Waters, “Of 
Strategies, Deliberate and Emergent,” Strategic Management Journal (6), 1985, pp. 257-272. The works of Professor Michael 
Porter, including Competitive Strategy (New York: The Free Press, 1980); and Competitive Advantage (New York: The Free 
Press, 1985), typify the view that strategy-making is a deliberate process. The research of Professor Robert Burgelman (for 
example, “An Intra-Organizational Ecology of Strategy-Making,” Organization Science, 1991) and before him, of Richard 
Nelson and Sidney Winter (An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change. Cambridge, MA: Belknap-Harvard Press, 1982), are 
outstanding examples of the school that views strategy-making as an emergent process. 
301-041 Using Aggregate Project Planning to Link Strategy, Innovation, and the Resource Allocation Process 
2 
such times.2 But when a viable strategy has emerged, then a crucial challenge in the strategic 
management of innovation is to ensure that the two sides of this coin are as coherent as possible -- to 
be sure that the stream of innovations coming from a company -- its emergent or de facto strategy -- 
mirrors the strategy that its managers and stakeholders intend to pursue -- its intended strategy. 
Achieving this alignment is difficult because in most companies, the processes by which 
strategies are formulated operate autonomously from the processes by which development projects 
are defined, approved, and allocated resources. This note has been written to help students 
understand how and why misalignment between strategy and innovation often occurs, and to equip 
them with tools they can use to manage the resource allocation process so that strategy and patterns 
of innovation mirror each other. 
The Resource Allocation Process 
The actual mechanisms by which resources are allocated and prioritized are unruly, 
disobedient, strong-minded processes that operate almost without regard for the will of senior 
management. One reason why resource allocation is such a difficult process to control is that it is a 
highly diffused process. Senior managers may decide, for example, to authorize a new development 
project, and allocate a certain amount of money for it. The real resource allocation decisions, 
however, are made every day, as employees who play a role in the project decide whether they will 
put that project at the top of their “To Do” list, or give other assignments a higher priority. The 
product, once fully developed, needs to be sold. Every day, salespeople make decisions about which 
customers to call on, and which not to call on. And when they are with customers, they decide to 
push certain products and not to push other products. Engineering and marketing managers assign 
their best people to some projects and not others. All of these decisions are crucial resource allocation 
decisions. Collectively, they make the senior manager's job of managing the resource allocation 
process extremely difficult.3 
Exhibit 1: The Aggregate Project Planning Framework 
Base
Improvement
Next-
Generation
Radical
Create
New
Market
Reach
New
Customers
Sell more products
to existing
customers
Replace
Current
Products
N
at
u
re
 o
f 
T
ec
h
n
ol
og
ic
al
 C
h
an
ge
Impact on Market
Breakthrough
Product/
brand
support
Derivative
Platform
 
 
2 One of the most complete presentations of such evidence is in Bhide, Amar V., The Origin and Evolution of New Business. 
New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. 
3 One of the finest books about the resource allocation process was written by HBS faculty member Joseph Bower, Managing 
the Resource Allocation Process. 
Using Aggregate Project Planning to Link Strategy, Innovation, and the Resource Allocation Process 301-041 
3 
 
Aggregate project planning (APP) is a tool that can link a company’s intended strategy with 
the mechanisms through which resources are allocated across development projects.4 The APP 
framework, depicted in Exhibit 1, characterizes projects as breakthrough, platform and derivative / 
support in character, depending on the technological risk and the newness of the markets inherent in 
the projects. Breakthrough projects are those that result in new products and processes that create 
new markets -- or those that employ radically new technologies to bring more effective products to 
existing markets. The Intel 8088 processor would be considered a breakthrough product, located 
toward the lower left corner of the APP matrix. It represented a modest technological stretch beyond 
the prior product (up the vertical axis), but opened an entirely new market, for personal computers. 
Platform products are those, from a market standpoint, that enable a major improvement in market 
share by enabling a company to reach new sets of customers. Oftennew platforms entail next 
generation technology as well. Platforms can be leveraged, typically, into a variety of derivative 
products with modest feature extensions or functionality improvements. Hence, Intel's introductions 
of its 286, 386, 486, Pentium, Pentium II, Pentium III and Itanium were successive platform projects, 
each leveraged by a series of derivative or extension products with suffixes such as SX, LX, DX, etc. 
When a market is emerging or undergoing radical change -- a period in which emergent 
strategy processes need to predominate, the strategy-making process depicted in Exhibit 2 generally 
flows from right to left. Ideas for new products flow somewhat unpredictably into a company, and 
get filtered through the criteria employed in its resource allocation decisions. Those ideas and 
opportunities that get funded populate the firm's new product portfolio. The stream of new 
products, processes and acquisitions that emerge from the development process define the firm's de 
facto strategy. 
 
Exhibit 2: The emergent strategy-making process 
Stream of new
products,
processes and
acquisitions
Opportunities,
crises, and
innovative ideas
stream into a
company from
sales, marketing &
engineering
employees, plus
competitors,
customers, etc.
Set of projects and acquisitions
that get funded and executed
C
ri
te
ri
a 
e m
pl
oy
ed
 in
re
so
u r
ce
 a
l lo
ca
tio
n
 
When deliberate strategy processes need to predominate, however, the strategy-making 
process needs to begin flowing from the left to the right, as depicted in Exhibit 3. It must begin with 
a clearly articulated, broadly understood strategy. Management is then asked to express the strategy 
in terms of a stream of projects to develop new products, processes and services. If implemented, this 
 
4 The concept of aggregate project planning was first introduced in Wheelwright, Steven C. and Kim B. Clark, "Creating Project 
Plans to Focus Product Development," Harvard Business Review, March-April, 1992, pp. 10-82. 
301-041 Using Aggregate Project Planning to Link Strategy, Innovation, and the Resource Allocation Process 
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stream of projects -- called an aggregate project plan -- would constitute implementation of the 
strategy. In Exhibit 3 a two-way arrow links strategy with the APP, however, because most 
management teams find that when they try to express their strategy in terms of a sequence of types of 
projects, they cannot do it -- the strategy has not been articulated with enough clarity and detail. 
Hence, the attempt to define a project set requires them to go back and clarify the strategy so that it 
gives useful guidance to those who must allocate resources. 
The second step in aggregate project planning is to juxtapose the projects that are required to 
implement the strategy, with a sense for how many development projects a company has the capacity 
to execute during any given period. The interactive arrows between the capacity box in Exhibit 3 and 
the strategy and APP boxes reflect the fact that in most companies, the strategic ambitions of 
management often exceed the capacity of the organization to execute the required projects. 
Exhibit 3: The Aggregate Project Planning Process 
Clearly 
articulated and 
broadly 
understood 
strategy & 
product line 
architecture
What types of projects must 
we execute in order to 
implement our strategy, 
given our project capacity?
Which ideas or 
combination of 
ideas can most 
effectively fulfill 
the strategic 
mission of each 
project?
What resources 
does each type of 
project require, 
and how many 
projects do we 
have capacity to 
execute?
 
 
Managing capacity for innovation is an extraordinarily difficult problem. In their extensive 
studies of this problem, Wheelwright and Clark5 have shown that most companies are attempting to 
execute between 2x and 3x the number of innovation projects than they have the capacity to execute. 
One reason for this is that whereas products in manufacturing operations are relatively standard, and 
the amount of person and machine time required to work on them is quite predictable, innovation 
projects are not standard. They involve various commitments from engineering, marketing, finance, 
and so on. It is important for a marketing manager to know how many new product development 
projects her staff can handle, in addition to their on-going responsibilities to support products that 
already are being produced, sold and used. Because most employees and managers are optimistic, 
hard-working and good-willed, people who already are working at full capacity most often say, 
"Sure, I can do that too," when asked to take on one more thing. As employees take on more and 
more projects, the time required for any one project to wend its way through the development 
process increases -- just as it takes products a long time to work their way through a plant that 
maintains high levels of work-in-process inventories. 
 
5 Wheelwright, Steven C. and Kim B. Clark, Revolutionizing Product Development. New York: The Free Press, 1992. 
Using Aggregate Project Planning to Link Strategy, Innovation, and the Resource Allocation Process 301-041 
5 
Another reason why controlling innovation commitments to fit within capacity constraints is 
difficult is that managers are never presented with a complete menu of projects from which to 
choose, at a single point in time. Opportunities, ideas, or requests for projects arise unpredictably 
and singly, from many sources -- engineers, executives, competitors, sales and service staff, and so 
on. Many of these demand an immediate response, and cannot be compared in their attractiveness to 
projects that have not yet been proposed. While new ideas can be compared in their attractiveness 
with projects that already are underway, much of the cost of ongoing projects is sunk. Hence, the full 
projected benefit from these projects constitutes an attractive return on the incremental cost entailed 
in completing the project. Hence, managers are typically forced to decide on the merits of innovation 
proposals singly -- typically only using a standard financial return hurdle. As a result, companies 
typically commit to undertake far more development projects than they have the capacity to pursue, 
and they become far slower at innovation than they otherwise would be. 
A method for determining innovation capacity is to allocate percentages of the development 
budget across the breakthrough, platform and derivative project categories. A typical healthy 
company experiencing reasonable growth might allocate 10% to breakthrough innovations, 30% to 
platform projects and 60% to derivatives, for example. Companies needing to accelerate growth 
would want higher percentages allocated to breakthrough and platform initiatives, whereas 
companies that needed to generate higher levels of short-term profit would skew investments toward 
the derivative box. From this, managers then can determine the total amount of money available to 
spend on projects in each category. They should then, based upon their experience, judgmentally 
assess how much it costs to execute a typical project in the breakthrough, platform and derivative 
project categories, and figure out how many projects of each type they have the capacity to execute in 
a given period of time. If, for example, 30% of a $100 million annual R&D budget were allocated to 
platform projects and such projects historically required a year and $10 million to complete, the 
organization would have capacity to handle three platform development projects each year. This 
organization would then have a "budget" of three platform development projects that it could fund 
each year. The system would not allow managers to approve more projects than this, because 
cramming more projectsinto the development funnel would only slow the progress of existing 
projects through the funnel. The system would mandate, conversely, that managers would need to 
formulate and fund three attractive platform projects each year. If it didn't -- if they diverted funding 
to derivative projects, or cut funding to send more profit to the bottom line, for example -- then the 
managers could not implement the strategy that they intended. 
Through processes such as this, strategy and the APP have to be changed, or capacity altered, 
in order to bring the plan into balance. By iterating through these steps, management can define a 
clear strategic direction that can realistically be implemented by executing a set of projects. 
The “blank bubbles” depicted in the APP in Exhibit 3 aren’t specific projects yet -- they are 
placeholders, or reserved blocks of capacity (in terms of money and people), that are set aside to 
execute projects that have a particular character. Exhibit 3 shows that as ideas flow into the company, 
they then need to compete against each other for one of these slots in the project plan. 
Because they typically can be executed quickly, entail less technical risk, utilize existing 
business infrastructure and are sold to current customers, derivative project proposals almost always 
forecast higher returns on investment than breakthrough and platform projects. In companies where 
proposals to develop breakthrough and platform projects must compete for resources against 
derivative projects, therefore, resources tend to be disproportionately allocated toward incremental, 
derivative investments. With a mechanism such as the APP to set aside pools of resources for each 
type of project, derivative project ideas will compete for funding against other derivative project 
ideas, but will never compete for funds with breakthrough or platform product ideas; and so on. 
This imposes a discipline on decision-making. 
Aggregate project planning is not a single, silver-bullet solution to the challenges that 
companies face. However, one of the most significant root causes of the pathologies observed in new 
301-041 Using Aggregate Project Planning to Link Strategy, Innovation, and the Resource Allocation Process 
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product development is that resource allocation is in practice not well-linked with the company’s 
strategy. Often, strategy is so poorly articulated that key strategic decisions need to be made in the 
context of technical or customer-choice decisions that emerge in development projects -- holding up 
the projects' progress. Senior managers may be saying one thing, but marketing may be accepting 
orders or seeking customers based on entirely different criteria. Strategy-making and resource 
allocation are extraordinarily complex problems in practice, even in small companies. Using a tool 
such as aggregate project planning can add discipline, structure and consistency to the judgments 
that managers of innovation need to make. 
 
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 /ITA (Utilizzare queste impostazioni per creare documenti Adobe PDF adatti per visualizzare e stampare documenti aziendali in modo affidabile. I documenti PDF creati possono essere aperti con Acrobat e Adobe Reader 5.0 e versioni successive.)
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 /NLD (Gebruik deze instellingen om Adobe PDF-documenten te maken waarmee zakelijke documenten betrouwbaar kunnen worden weergegeven en afgedrukt. De gemaakte PDF-documenten kunnen worden geopend met Acrobat en Adobe Reader 5.0 en hoger.)
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 /ENU ()
 >>
>> setdistillerparams
<<
 /HWResolution [600 600]
 /PageSize [612.000 792.000]
>> setpagedevice