INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS - liberalism x realism

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Realism is a foundational paradigm in International Relations theory that views the global 
system through a lens of constant competition and power politics. Here is a summary of its 
core principles: 
● Pessimistic View of Human Nature: Realism is built on a pessimistic view of human 
nature, echoing classical thinkers like Thomas Hobbes, who described the human 
condition as a "war of everyone against everyone," and Thucydides, who noted that 
"the strong do what they can, the weak suffer what they must". 
● States as the Key Actors: Unlike Liberalism, which considers NGOs, multinational 
enterprises, and international organizations, Realism treats States as the primary and 
key unit of analysis in the international system. 
● A "Zero-Sum Game": International relations are seen strictly as a zero-sum game. 
Self-interested states constantly compete for power and national security, meaning 
that one nation's gain is inherently viewed as a loss or a threat to another. 
● Politics Prevails Over Economics: In the realist worldview, political and security 
considerations always dictate the agenda, and economic interests are subordinated. 
A modern example of this is Russia's invasion of Ukraine: Vladimir Putin unleashed a 
war for geopolitical goals despite the massive economic costs, such as the loss of oil 
and gas exports to the EU and the exodus of hundreds of Western companies from 
the Russian market. 
● Reliance on Material Power: To survive and exert influence, states rely on material 
strength. This is divided into Hard Realism, which represents military power and is 
measured by defense expenditures, and Soft Realism, which represents 
foundational economic power and is measured by a country's Gross Domestic 
Product (GDP). 
● Universal Categories: Realism argues that the pursuit of "interest" and "power" are 
universal categories. This means they drive the behavior of all states, regardless of 
their internal political systems, culture, or ideologies. 
● Alliances as Strategic Tools: Alliances in a realist world are strictly practical and 
depend on the global distribution of power. In a bipolar system (like the Cold War), 
alliances tend to be rigid, whereas in a multipolar world, alliances are highly fluid and 
flexible, allowing states to align with different partners based purely on what is most 
strategically useful at the time. 
 
 
Liberalism is the primary theoretical counterweight to Realism in International Relations. 
While Realism is focused on conflict and power, Liberalism offers a much more optimistic 
framework centered on cooperation, progress, and mutual benefit. 
Here are the core principles of how Liberalism views and shapes the international system: 
● An Optimistic View of Human Nature: In stark contrast to Realism's pessimistic 
outlook, Liberalism believes in human progress and the potential for peaceful 
coexistence. 
● A "Positive-Sum Game": Liberalism views international relations as a positive-sum 
game. This means that through cooperation, all participating nations can win and 
grow richer together, rather than one nation's gain automatically being another's loss. 
● Diverse Global Actors: While Realism only cares about States, Liberalism argues 
that the global system is shaped by States and Non-state actors alike. This includes 
International Organizations (like the UN or WTO), Non-Governmental Organizations 
(NGOs), and Multinational Enterprises. 
● Economics Prevails Over Politics: Liberal theory suggests that economic 
considerations can override pure power politics. Instead of relying on military might, 
Liberalism's main instruments of statecraft are economic exchange and 
international institutions. 
● The Use of "Soft Power": Liberalism relies heavily on "Soft Power," which is defined 
as a country's ability to shape the preferences of others through legitimacy, 
international aid, institutions, and "leading by example," rather than through military 
force or direct coercion. 
● The Power of Democracy: A fundamental pillar of Liberalism is the promotion of 
democracy. The theory argues that democratic systems are preferable because they 
make choosing to go to war a much more difficult option for leaders, thereby fostering 
a more peaceful international system. 
How Liberalism Solves the "Anarchic" World: Institutional Liberalism A specific branch 
of this theory, called Institutional Liberalism (or Functionalism), acknowledges that the 
international system lacks a central global police force, which naturally creates a "security 
dilemma" and a "prisoner's dilemma" where states distrust each other. 
To decrease this distrust and prevent states from cheating each other, Liberalism prescribes 
the creation of international institutions. The strategy relies on the "spillover effect": states 
begin with limited, technical, or economic cooperation. Over time, as trust builds, this 
cooperation "spills over" into deeper and wider political integration. 
The Real-World Example The European Union is the ultimate real-world manifestation of 
Liberalism and the spillover effect, having started as a limited economic coal and steel 
community that evolved into a massive political union. However, the sources note that in 
today's increasingly contested global environment, the EU is pursuing a concept of "open 
strategic autonomy," which is essentially having to adapt by mixing its foundational 
liberalism with a pinch of realism. 
Based on the provided materials, beyond institutional cooperation (the "spillover effect") and 
the focus on economics, here are the final crucial points you need to know about Liberalism 
in International Relations: 
1. Philosophical Roots (Kant and Wilson) While Realism is grounded in pessimistic 
thinkers (like Hobbes and Thucydides), Liberalism is inspired by optimistic views on human 
evolution and progress. The sources highlight two foundational thinkers: 
● Immanuel Kant (18th Century): He argued that for peace to reign on Earth, humans 
must evolve into "new beings who have learned to see the whole first," promoting 
mutual cooperation. 
● Woodrow Wilson (20th Century): The former US President asserted that world 
peace must be planted upon the "tested foundations of political liberty," explicitly 
rejecting selfish conquest and dominion. 
2. The Democratic Peace Theory One of the strongest pillars of Liberalism is the belief that 
spreading democracy is the best tool for peace. Because state power in modern 
democracies is vested in the people—who are the ones that suffer and pay for 
conflicts—democratic systems make war a much more difficult option for leaders to choose. 
Furthermore, the theory argues that democracies simply "better deliver" results and 
development for their societies. 
3. International Law as a Guide For Liberalism, state behavior should not be dictated by the 
law of the strongest, but rather by respect for International Law. The sources cite Article 21 
of the Treaty on European Union as the perfect modern embodiment of this: it legally 
mandates that the Union's international actions must be guided by respect for the United 
Nations Charter and international law. 
4. The Exact Definition of "Soft Power" Liberalism relies heavily on Soft Power. The 
documents define this concept very specifically as a country's ability to shape the 
preferences of others through legitimacy, international aid, and institutions. In short, it 
is the power of "leading by example" rather than leading through economic or military 
coercion. 
5. The Current Moment: The Liberal Order in Crisis Finally, it is essential to understand 
that the "Liberal International Order"—the global system focused on rules, free trade, and 
institutions like the UN, built after World War II—is currently in deep decline. The sources 
highlight two major contemporary threats: 
● The Democratic "Great Erosion": The world is undergoing a severe "democratic 
recession," with autocracies expanding and democratic systemsglobally losing 
ground over recent years. 
● The Return of Power Politics: Great powers (including the US under administrations 
like Donald Trump's) are abandoning multilateral practices in favor of unilateral 
actions, tariff protectionism, and a highly transactional, "predatory" approach to 
foreign policy. This erosion of norms threatens to transform the global landscape into 
a "no man's land" where a political, military, and economic "free-for-all" prevails. 
 
 
 
Aspect Realism Liberalism 
View of the 
international 
system 
The system is anarchic, 
meaning there is no central 
authority above states. 
Also accepts anarchy, but believes 
cooperation is possible within it. 
Main actors States are the central and 
most important actors. 
States, international institutions, 
organizations, and societies all 
matter. 
Primary goal of 
states 
Survival and power. States 
seek to maximize security and 
influence. 
Cooperation and mutual benefits. 
States pursue prosperity, stability, 
and peace. 
Human nature Often pessimistic: humans are 
self-interested and conflict is 
natural. 
More optimistic: humans and states 
can cooperate through rules and 
institutions. 
Role of power Power (especially military 
power) is the main tool in 
international politics. 
Power matters, but economic ties 
and institutions can reduce 
conflict. 
View on 
cooperation 
Cooperation is difficult and 
fragile because states fear 
being cheated. 
Cooperation is possible and 
sustainable, especially through 
institutions and interdependence. 
International 
institutions 
Institutions have limited 
influence; they mainly reflect 
the interests of powerful states. 
Institutions facilitate cooperation, 
create rules, and reduce distrust 
among states. 
Causes of war War is a natural result of 
competition for power and 
security. 
War can be reduced through 
democracy, trade, and 
international institutions. 
Key concepts Balance of power, security 
dilemma, national interest. 
Democratic peace, economic 
interdependence, institutional 
cooperation. 
Main thinkers Thucydides, Hans Morgenthau, 
Kenneth Waltz. 
Immanuel Kant, Robert Keohane, 
Joseph Nye.