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Lakotas and their allies over Custer’s troops, Native American resistance in the American West ultimately failed to
halt American expansion.
AMERICAN INDIAN SUBMISSION
Despite their success at Little Bighorn, neither the Lakota people nor any other Plains tribes followed this
battle with any other armed encounter. Rather, they either returned to tribal life or fled out of fear of remaining
troops, until the U.S. Army arrived in greater numbers and began to exterminate Indian encampments and
force others to accept payment for forcible removal from their lands. Sitting Bull himself fled to Canada,
although he later returned in 1881 and subsequently worked in Buffalo Bill’s Wild West show. In Montana, the
Blackfoot and Crow were forced to leave their tribal lands. In Colorado, the Utes gave up their lands after a brief
period of resistance. In Idaho, most of the Nez Perce gave up their lands peacefully, although in an incredible
episode, a band of some eight hundred Indians sought to evade U.S. troops and escape into Canada.
I Will Fight No More: Chief Joseph’s Capitulation
Chief Joseph, known to his people as “Thunder Traveling to the Loftier Mountain Heights,” was the chief of the
Nez Perce tribe, and he had realized that they could not win against the White people. In order to avoid a war that
would undoubtedly lead to the extermination of his people, he hoped to lead his tribe to Canada, where they
could live freely. He led a full retreat of his people over fifteen hundred miles of mountains and harsh terrain, only
to be caught within fifty miles of the Canadian border in late 1877. His speech has remained a poignant and vivid
reminder of what the tribe had lost.
“Tell General Howard I know his heart. What he told me before, I have it in my heart. I am tired of fighting. Our
Chiefs are killed; Looking Glass is dead, Ta Hool Hool Shute is dead. The old men are all dead. It is the young men
who say yes or no. He who led on the young men is dead. It is cold, and we have no blankets; the little children
are freezing to death. My people, some of them, have run away to the hills, and have no blankets, no food. No one
knows where they are—perhaps freezing to death. I want to have time to look for my children, and see how many
of them I can find. Maybe I shall find them among the dead. Hear me, my Chiefs! I am tired; my heart is sick and
sad. From where the sun now stands I will fight no more forever.”
“—Chief Joseph, 1877”
The final episode in the so-called Indian Wars occurred in 1890, at the Wounded Knee Massacre in South
Dakota. On their reservation, the Lakota people had begun to perform the “Ghost Dance,” which told of a
Messiah who would deliver the tribe from its hardship, with such frequency that White settlers began to worry
that another uprising would occur. The 7th Calvary prepared to round up the people performing the Ghost
Dance. Frightened after the death of Sitting Bull at the hands of tribal police, a group of Lakota Ghost Dancers
led by Bigfoot fled. When the 7th Cavalry caught up to them at Wounded Knee, South Dakota on December 29,
1890, the Lakotas prepared to surrender. Although the accounts are unclear, an apparent accidental rifle
discharge by a young Lakota man preparing to lay down his weapon led the U.S. soldiers to begin firing
indiscriminately upon the Native Americans. What little resistance the Lakotas mounted with a handful of
concealed rifles at the outset of the fight diminished quickly, with the troops eventually massacring between
150 and 300 men, women, and children. The U.S. troops suffered twenty-five fatalities, some of which were the
result of their own crossfire. Captain Edward Godfrey of the Seventh Cavalry later commented, “I know the
men did not aim deliberately and they were greatly excited. I don’t believe they saw their sights. They fired
rapidly but it seemed to me only a few seconds till there was not a living thing before us; warriors, squaws,
children, ponies, and dogs . . . went down before that unaimed fire.” The United States awarded twenty of these
soldiers the Congressional Medal of Honor, the nation's highest military honor. With this last show of brutality,
the Indian Wars came to a close. U.S. government officials had already begun the process of seeking an
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alternative to the meaningless treaties and costly battles. A more effective means with which to address the
public perception of the “Indian problem” was needed. Americanization provided the answer.
AMERICANIZATION
Through the years of the Indian Wars of the 1870s and early 1880s, opinion back east was mixed. There were
many who felt, as General Philip Sheridan (appointed in 1867 to pacify the Plains Indians) allegedly said, that
"the only good Indian was a dead Indian." But increasingly, several American reformers who would later form
the backbone of the Progressive Era had begun to criticize the violence, arguing that the government should
help the Native Americans through an Americanization policy aimed at assimilating them into American
society. Individual land ownership, Christian worship, and education for children became the cornerstones of
this new assault on Native life and culture.
Beginning in the 1880s, clergymen, government officials, and social workers all worked to assimilate Native
peoples into American life. The government helped reformers remove Native American children from their
homes and the cultural influence of their families and place them in boarding schools, such as the Carlisle
Indian School, where they were forced to abandon their tribal traditions and embrace Euro-American social
and cultural practices. Such schools acculturated Native American boys and girls and provided vocational
training for males and domestic science classes for females. Boarding schools sought to convince Native
children to abandon their language, clothing, and social customs for a more Euro-American lifestyle (Figure
17.14).
FIGURE 17.14 The federal government’s policy towards Native Americans shifted in the late 1880s from the
reservation system to assimilating them into the American ideal.
A vital part of the assimilation effort was land reform. During earlier negotiations, the government had
recognized Native American communal ownership of land. Although many tribes recognized individual
families' use rights to specific plots of land, the tribe owned the land. As a part of their plan to Americanize the
tribes, reformers sought legislation to replace this concept with the popular Euro-American notion of real
estate ownership and self-reliance. One such law was the Dawes Severalty Act of 1887, named after a reformer
and senator from Massachusetts. In what was essentially a new version of the original Homestead Act, the
Dawes Act permitted the federal government to divide the lands of any tribe and grant 160 acres of farmland or
320 acres of grazing land to each head of family, with lesser amounts to single persons and others. In a nod
towards the paternal relationship with which White people viewed Native Americans—similar to the
justification of the previous treatment of enslaved African Americans—the Dawes Act permitted the federal
government to hold an individual Native American’s newly acquired land in trust for twenty-five years. Only
then would they obtain full title and be granted the citizenship rights that land ownership entailed. It would not
be until 1924 that formal citizenship was granted to all Native Americans. Under the Dawes Act, Native
Americans were assigned the most arid, useless land and "surplus" land went to White settlers. The
government sold as much as eighty million acres of Native American land to White American settlers.
17.4 • The Assault on American Indian Life and Culture 453
CLICK AND EXPLORE
Take a look at the Carlisle Industrial Indian School (http://openstax.org/l/carlisleschool) , which attempted to
assimilate Native American studentsfrom 1879 to 1918. Look through the photographs and records of the
school to assess the school's impact on the student's cultural practices.
17.5 The Impact of Expansion on Chinese Immigrants and Hispanic Citizens
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Describe the treatment of Chinese immigrants and Hispanic citizens during the westward expansion of the
nineteenth century
As White Americans pushed west, they not only collided with Native American tribes but also with Hispanic
Americans and Chinese immigrants. Hispanics in the Southwest had the opportunity to become American
citizens at the end of the Mexican-American war, but their status was markedly second-class. Chinese
immigrants arrived en masse during the California Gold Rush and numbered in the hundreds of thousands by
the late 1800s, with the majority living in California, working menial jobs. These distinct cultural and ethnic
groups strove to maintain their rights and way of life in the face of persistent racism and entitlement. But the
large number of White settlers and government-sanctioned land acquisitions left them at a profound
disadvantage. Ultimately, both groups withdrew into homogenous communities in which their language and
culture could survive.
CHINESE IMMIGRANTS IN THE AMERICAN WEST
The initial arrival of Chinese immigrants to the United States began as a slow trickle in the 1820s, with barely
650 living in the U.S. by the end of 1849. However, as gold rush fever swept the country, Chinese immigrants,
too, were attracted to the notion of quick fortunes. By 1852, over 25,000 Chinese immigrants had arrived, and
by 1880, over 300,000 Chinese lived in the United States, most in California. While they had dreams of finding
gold, many instead found employment building the first transcontinental railroad (Figure 17.15). Some even
traveled as far east as the former cotton plantations of the Old South, which they helped to farm after the Civil
War. Several thousand of these immigrants booked their passage to the United States using a “credit-ticket,” in
which their passage was paid in advance by American businessmen to whom the immigrants were then
indebted for a period of work. Most arrivals were men: Few wives or children ever traveled to the United States.
As late as 1890, less than 5 percent of the Chinese population in the U.S. was female. Regardless of gender, few
Chinese immigrants intended to stay permanently in the United States, although many were reluctantly forced
to do so, as they lacked the financial resources to return home.
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http://openstax.org/l/carlisleschool
FIGURE 17.15 Building the railroads was dangerous and backbreaking work. On the western railroad line, Chinese
migrants, along with other non-White workers, were often given the most difficult and dangerous jobs of all.
Prohibited by law since 1790 from obtaining U.S. citizenship through naturalization, Chinese immigrants
faced harsh discrimination and violence from American settlers in the West. Despite hardships like the special
tax that Chinese miners had to pay to take part in the Gold Rush, or their subsequent forced relocation into
Chinese districts, these immigrants continued to arrive in the United States seeking a better life for the
families they left behind. Only when the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 forbade further immigration from
China for a ten-year period did the flow stop.
The Chinese community banded together in an effort to create social and cultural centers in cities such as San
Francisco. In a haphazard fashion, they sought to provide services ranging from social aid to education, places
of worship, health facilities, and more to their fellow Chinese immigrants. As Chinese workers began
competing with White Americans for jobs in California cities, the latter began a system of built-in
discrimination. In the 1870s, White Americans formed “anti-coolie clubs” (“coolie” being a racial slur directed
towards people of any Asian descent), through which they organized boycotts of Chinese-produced products
and lobbied for anti-Chinese laws. Some protests turned violent, as in 1885 in Rock Springs, Wyoming, where
tensions between White and Chinese immigrant miners erupted in a riot, resulting in over two dozen Chinese
immigrants being murdered and many more injured.
Slowly, racism and discrimination became law. The new California constitution of 1879 denied naturalized
Chinese citizens the right to vote or hold state employment. Additionally, in 1882, the U.S. Congress passed the
Chinese Exclusion Act, which forbade further Chinese immigration into the United States for ten years. The
ban was later extended on multiple occasions until its repeal in 1943. Eventually, some Chinese immigrants
returned to China. Those who remained were stuck in the lowest-paying, most menial jobs. Several found
assistance through the creation of benevolent associations designed to both support Chinese communities and
defend them against political and legal discrimination; however, the history of Chinese immigrants to the
United States remained largely one of deprivation and hardship well into the twentieth century.
CLICK AND EXPLORE
The Central Pacific Railroad Photographic History Museum (http://openstax.org/l/railroadchina) provides a
context for the role of the Chinese who helped build the railroads. What does the site celebrate, and what, if
anything, does it condemn?
17.5 • The Impact of Expansion on Chinese Immigrants and Hispanic Citizens 455
http://openstax.org/l/railroadchina
The Backs that Built the Railroad
Below is a description of the construction of the railroad in 1867. Note the way it describes the scene, the
laborers, and the effort.
“The cars now (1867) run nearly to the summit of the Sierras. . . . four thousand laborers were at work—one-
tenth Irish, the rest Chinese. They were a great army laying siege to Nature in her strongest citadel. The rugged
mountains looked like stupendous ant-hills. They swarmed with Celestials, shoveling, wheeling, carting, drilling
and blasting rocks and earth, while their dull, moony eyes stared out from under immense basket-hats, like
umbrellas. At several dining camps we saw hundreds sitting on the ground, eating soft boiled rice with chopsticks
as fast as terrestrials could with soup-ladles. Irish laborers received thirty dollars per month (gold) and board;
Chinese, thirty-one dollars, boarding themselves. After a little experience the latter were quite as efficient and far
less troublesome.”
“—Albert D. Richardson, Beyond the Mississippi”
Several great American advancements of the nineteenth century were built with the hands of many other
nations. It is interesting to ponder how much these immigrant communities felt they were building their own
fortunes and futures, versus the fortunes of others. Is it likely that the Chinese laborers, many of whom died due
to the harsh conditions, considered themselves part of “a great army”? Certainly, this account reveals the
unwitting racism of the day, where workers were grouped together by their ethnicity, and each ethnic group was
labeled monolithically as “good workers” or “troublesome,” with no regard for individual differences among the
hundreds of Chinese or Irish workers.
HISPANIC AMERICANS IN THE AMERICAN WEST
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which ended the Mexican-American War in 1848, promised U.S. citizenship
to the nearly seventy-five thousand Hispanics now living in the American Southwest; approximately 90
percent accepted the offer and chose to stay in the United States despite their immediate relegation to second-
class citizenship status. Relative to the rest of Mexico, these lands were sparsely populated and had been so
ever since the country achieved its freedom from Spain in 1821. In fact, New Mexico—not Texas or
California—was the center of settlement in the region in the years immediately preceding the war withthe
United States, containing nearly fifty thousand Mexicans. However, those who did settle the area were proud of
their heritage and ability to develop rancheros of great size and success. Despite promises made in the treaty,
these Californios—as they came to be known—quickly lost their land to White settlers who simply displaced the
rightful landowners, by force if necessary. Repeated efforts at legal redress mostly fell upon deaf ears. In some
instances, judges and lawyers would permit the legal cases to proceed through an expensive legal process only
to the point where Hispanic landowners who insisted on holding their ground were rendered penniless for
their efforts.
Much like Chinese immigrants, Hispanic citizens were relegated to the worst-paying jobs under the most
terrible working conditions. They worked as peóns (manual laborers similar to enslaved people), vaqueros
(cattle herders), and cartmen (transporting food and supplies) on the cattle ranches that White landowners
possessed, or undertook the most hazardous mining tasks (Figure 17.16).
DEFINING AMERICAN
456 17 • Go West Young Man! Westward Expansion, 1840-1900
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	Chapter 17 Go West Young Man! Westward Expansion, 1840-1900
	17.5 The Impact of Expansion on Chinese Immigrants and Hispanic Citizens