Into the PedocenePedology of a changing world

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<p>O P I N I ON</p><p>Into the Pedocene—Pedology of a changing world</p><p>Alfred E. Hartemink</p><p>Department of Soil Science, FD Hole Soils</p><p>Lab, The University of Wisconsin-</p><p>Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA</p><p>Correspondence</p><p>Alfred E. Hartemink, Department of Soil</p><p>Science, FD Hole Soils Lab, The</p><p>University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1525</p><p>Observatory Drive, Madison, WI 53711,</p><p>USA.</p><p>Email: hartemink@wisc.edu</p><p>Abstract</p><p>Pedology, or the study of soil, is often viewed focusing on soil formation, mor-</p><p>phology, mapping and classification. But the study of soil has largely expanded</p><p>beyond these four areas and now includes quantitative studies using soil legacy</p><p>data combined with technological advances in data collection, soil sampling</p><p>and computation. We have global availability of soil information and can</p><p>retrieve pedological information for any location including some indication of</p><p>its accuracy. Scientific and technological developments in pedology have been</p><p>led by the rise of several subdisciplines including pedometrics, digital soil map-</p><p>ping, spectral pedology, digital soil morphometrics, hydropedology, microbial</p><p>pedology, astropedology and the development of pedotransfer functions. With</p><p>the expansion of pedology and its relevance for understanding the earth system</p><p>and tackling global change, it is postulated that soil science has now entered</p><p>the ‘Pedocene’—a soil epoch equivalent to the Anthropocene. The Pedocene is</p><p>characterized by the quantitative understanding and evaluation of the global</p><p>soil system, and the effects of human-induced changes brought to soil.</p><p>KEYWORD S</p><p>pedometrics, soil classification, soil formation, soil mapping, soil science</p><p>1 | INTRODUCTION</p><p>The term pedology was coined by Friedrich Fallou</p><p>(Fallou, 1862), and it was used by Russian soil researchers</p><p>in the 1870s (Shaw, 1930). Pedology particularly advanced</p><p>in the 1950s and 1960s following the publication of the Soil</p><p>Survey Manual (Soil Survey Staff, 1951) and the Seventh</p><p>Approximation (Soil Survey Staff, 1960), which put a large</p><p>emphasis on soil morphology and soil properties that could</p><p>be measured in the field or laboratory. It boosted pedologi-</p><p>cal studies. Soil classification systems were developed in</p><p>many countries which increased the need for pedological</p><p>studies, and in the 1960s numerical soil classification was</p><p>first developed (Hole & Hironaka, 1960). In 1970, emerging</p><p>trends in pedology were reviewed (Brewer &</p><p>Sleeman, 1970). It was noted that pedology moved towards</p><p>more factual and detailed descriptions of soil individuals,</p><p>precise definition and diagnostics of soil horizons, and the</p><p>use of soil formation in soil classification.</p><p>As soil mapping was an important area of study for</p><p>many pedologists, particularly following the initiative</p><p>taken in 1960 to produce a soil map of the world (FAO-</p><p>Unesco, 1974), new techniques to delineate the bound-</p><p>aries of soil mapping units such as aerial photographs,</p><p>remote sensing and side-looking radar became more</p><p>common (Brewer & Sleeman, 1970). Field studies</p><p>researched the age sequences of soils, the study of geo-</p><p>morphic and age relationships of soils, including the</p><p>cyclic nature of soil and landscape development (Hole &</p><p>Campbell, 1985). Radiocarbon dating was used to assess</p><p>superposition and age of soil materials, whereas x-ray</p><p>techniques were used to make estimations of soil mineral</p><p>species. Despite the scientific expansion of pedological</p><p>research between the 1950s and 1980s, pedology became</p><p>Received: 29 June 2023 Revised: 10 July 2023 Accepted: 13 July 2023</p><p>DOI: 10.1111/ejss.13399</p><p>Eur J Soil Sci. 2023;74:e13399. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ejss © 2023 British Society of Soil Science. 1 of 6</p><p>https://doi.org/10.1111/ejss.13399</p><p>https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5797-6798</p><p>mailto:hartemink@wisc.edu</p><p>http://wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ejss</p><p>https://doi.org/10.1111/ejss.13399</p><p>http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1111%2Fejss.13399&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2023-08-04</p><p>somewhat equivalent to soil morphology, genesis,</p><p>classification and mapping. With the decline in national</p><p>soil survey programmes (Nachtergaele, 1990), so did the</p><p>emphasis on pedology in university and research centres</p><p>(Basher, 1997). Currently, considerable soil research is</p><p>being conducted by a community that has not enjoyed</p><p>primary education in pedology (Hartemink, 2015; Schi-</p><p>mel & Chadwick, 2013; Yaalon, 1990).</p><p>An upsurge in soil science and pedology has been</p><p>driven by scientific developments and the need to tackle</p><p>global environmental change (Hartemink, 2023;</p><p>Hartemink & McBratney, 2008; Janzen et al., 2011;</p><p>McKenzie, 2006). Pedological research has been directed at</p><p>reconstructing past earth surface environments, developing</p><p>soil resource databases and information systems and</p><p>extending soil development concepts to extraterrestrial sys-</p><p>tems. The contributions of pedologists have become part of</p><p>earth systems science (Sposito & Reginato, 1992) and the</p><p>growing field of pedology suggests that soil science is mov-</p><p>ing towards a geoscience (Wilding & Lin, 2006). Pedology</p><p>is also contributing to the United Nations Sustainable</p><p>Development Goals (Bouma et al., 2022). A more contem-</p><p>porary definition of pedology is therefore: ‘…the earth sci-</p><p>ence that quantifies the factors and processes of soil</p><p>formation including the quality, extent, distribution, spatial</p><p>variability and interpretation of soils from microscopic to</p><p>megascopic scales’ (Singer, 2015). Here, I review some of</p><p>the major new pedological fields, and propose that we have</p><p>now arrived at a new epoch for pedology: the Pedocene.</p><p>2 | NEW FIELDS</p><p>Several new fields of study have emerged in pedology in</p><p>the past decades, including pedometrics, digital soil map-</p><p>ping, spectral pedology, digital soil morphometrics,</p><p>hydropedology, microbial pedology, astropedology and</p><p>the development of pedotransfer functions. These fields</p><p>are briefly described below.</p><p>The term pedometrics was coined in 1986 by Alex</p><p>McBratney and he noted that it generally addresses the</p><p>same issues as pedology but focuses on problems that can</p><p>be formulated quantitatively and can be solved with</p><p>mathematical and statistical techniques (McBratney</p><p>et al., 2018). A definition of pedometrics is: The use of</p><p>quantitative methods for the study of soil distribution</p><p>and genesis and as a sustainable resource. The pedo-</p><p>metric community is very active and contributes to an</p><p>understanding of the soil mantle; pedometrics has devel-</p><p>oped methods for soil sampling, data analysis, as well as</p><p>soil assessment and its uncertainty (Heuvelink, 2018).</p><p>Soil survey, the traditional field of study for many</p><p>pedologists, has progressed to the emerging field and</p><p>developments in digital soil mapping that was first</p><p>elaborated in the early 2000s (McBratney et al., 2003). Ma</p><p>et al. (2019) reviewed the link between pedology and</p><p>digital soil mapping and noted that pedogenesis and</p><p>soil–landscape processes strongly influence spatial varia-</p><p>tion in soil properties. They summarized the link as fol-</p><p>lows: (i) soil classes can be mapped accurately using</p><p>digital soil mapping, (ii) soil information can be extracted</p><p>from soil maps, (iii) occurrence and thickness of soil hori-</p><p>zons, whole soil profile and soil parent material can be</p><p>predicted successfully using digital soil mapping tech-</p><p>niques. Digital soil mapping can provide useful informa-</p><p>tion about pedogenic processes, addition (aeolian dust</p><p>deposition), removal (soil erosion), transformation</p><p>(weathering of primary minerals, formation of clay min-</p><p>erals and calcification) and translocation (clay illuvia-</p><p>tion). Digital soil mapping can lead to new pedological</p><p>knowledge, but this needs further exploration.</p><p>Besides advances in soil mapping and mathematical</p><p>methods for pedological research, developments in soil</p><p>analysis have contributed to an increasing amount and</p><p>global distribution of soil data. The use of diffusive reflec-</p><p>tance spectroscopy has been widely adopted, particularly</p><p>the visible, near-infrared and mid-infrared spectral range</p><p>(Viscarra Rossel et al., 2011). Both in situ and laboratory</p><p>spectra are being collected in pedological research for the</p><p>characterization of soil properties as well as soil classes</p><p>(Demattê et al., 2004; Mancini et al., 2023), for which the</p><p>term spectral pedology is used (Demattê & da Silva</p><p>Terra, 2014). Digital soil morphometrics uses pedometric</p><p>techniques in the morphological study of soil profiles. It</p><p>combines tools and techniques for measuring and quantify-</p><p>ing soil profile attributes and deriving continuous depth</p><p>functions (Hartemink & Minasny, 2014). Soil profile prop-</p><p>erties can be assessed using proximal sensors or through</p><p>image analysis methods. Horizons can be delineated by</p><p>cluster analysis of proximally sensed data, for example, visi-</p><p>ble, near-infrared and portable x-ray fluorescence spectros-</p><p>copy, as well as digital images (Zhang & Hartemink, 2019a;</p><p>Zhang & Hartemink, 2019b). Digital soil morphometrics</p><p>Highlights</p><p>• Pedology has expanded beyond its traditional</p><p>fields of research.</p><p>• Most soils across the globe have been changed</p><p>by human activities.</p><p>• Pedology leads most soil science and techno-</p><p>logical developments.</p><p>• Soil science has entered the Pedocene – a soil</p><p>epoch equivalent to the Anthropocene.</p><p>2 of 6 HARTEMINK</p><p>13652389, 2023, 4, D</p><p>ow</p><p>nloaded from</p><p>https://bsssjournals.onlinelibrary.w</p><p>iley.com</p><p>/doi/10.1111/ejss.13399 by U</p><p>niv of Sao Paulo - B</p><p>razil, W</p><p>iley O</p><p>nline L</p><p>ibrary on [09/08/2024]. See the T</p><p>erm</p><p>s and C</p><p>onditions (https://onlinelibrary.w</p><p>iley.com</p><p>/term</p><p>s-and-conditions) on W</p><p>iley O</p><p>nline L</p><p>ibrary for rules of use; O</p><p>A</p><p>articles are governed by the applicable C</p><p>reative C</p><p>om</p><p>m</p><p>ons L</p><p>icense</p><p>offers new quantitative and objective measures of soil pro-</p><p>file attributes and their variation. Digital soil morphomet-</p><p>rics can be equated to pedonmetrics.</p><p>The term hydropedology was coined in the late 1970s</p><p>to foster the relationship between pedology and hydrol-</p><p>ogy (Grant & Finlayson, 1978), and it was recognized that</p><p>the domain of pedology may extend deeply below the</p><p>water table (Narasimhan, 2005). Henry Lin promoted</p><p>and expanded the field of hydropedology and defined it</p><p>in 2011 as: ‘an emerging intertwined branch of soil sci-</p><p>ence and hydrology that studies interactive pedologic and</p><p>hydrologic processes and properties in the Earth's Critical</p><p>Zone [and that] aims to bridge disciplines, scales, and</p><p>data, connect soils with the landscape, link fast and slow</p><p>processes, and integrate mapping with monitoring and</p><p>modeling to provide a holistic understanding of the</p><p>FIGURE 1 A buried soil under turfgrass in Wisconsin, USA (a); a paddy soil from north-eastern Thailand (b); a highly weathered soil</p><p>under soybean in southern Brazil (c), a plaggen soil from the eastern part of the Netherlands covering a Podzol (d), and the vestiges of a soil</p><p>under tarmac - everywhere (e). All these soils have been drastically altered in the last few hundred years due to human activities, including</p><p>erosion and deposition (a), drainage and puddling (b), liming and nutrient applications (c), large amount of organic matter addition (d) and</p><p>sealing and asphyxiation (e). Photographs by the author.</p><p>HARTEMINK 3 of 6</p><p>13652389, 2023, 4, D</p><p>ow</p><p>nloaded from</p><p>https://bsssjournals.onlinelibrary.w</p><p>iley.com</p><p>/doi/10.1111/ejss.13399 by U</p><p>niv of Sao Paulo - B</p><p>razil, W</p><p>iley O</p><p>nline L</p><p>ibrary on [09/08/2024]. See the T</p><p>erm</p><p>s and C</p><p>onditions (https://onlinelibrary.w</p><p>iley.com</p><p>/term</p><p>s-and-conditions) on W</p><p>iley O</p><p>nline L</p><p>ibrary for rules of use; O</p><p>A</p><p>articles are governed by the applicable C</p><p>reative C</p><p>om</p><p>m</p><p>ons L</p><p>icense</p><p>interactions between the pedosphere and the hydro-</p><p>sphere. Unlike conventional soil science, it emphasizes in</p><p>situ soils in the landscape, which have distinct pedogenic</p><p>features and varying environmental settings’ (Lin, 2012).</p><p>Although hydropedology has become a well-used term in</p><p>soil science, it is not as widely used as ecohydrology</p><p>which is more encompassing.</p><p>The effects of animals on soils have been studied</p><p>extensively (Hole, 1981), but recent studies have focused</p><p>on linking the biology of the soil to pedology, so it is</p><p>called microbial pedology or biopedology. Microbial</p><p>pedology is defined as the quantification and understand-</p><p>ing of microbial processes and properties in different soil</p><p>types. Studying soil microbial data by soil type and</p><p>including pedological knowledge has proven to be useful</p><p>(e.g. Pino et al., 2019; Rabbi et al., 2020; Zhang</p><p>et al., 2022) but such studies are few. Numerous soil</p><p>microbial studies sample different land use systems or</p><p>soil textures. Biopedology, or the biological basis of pedol-</p><p>ogy, considers interactions between soils and life and</p><p>research has focused on bioturbation and the biomantle</p><p>theory (Huggett, 2021).</p><p>Astropedology, also named extraterrestrial pedology</p><p>(Sposito & Reginato, 1992), has become a field of study</p><p>ever since the first samples from the moon were returned</p><p>(McKay & Ming, 1990). It is now focusing on soil condi-</p><p>tions on Mars using data from in situ proximal sensors</p><p>(Anon., 2012; Banin, 1996; Retallack, 2013). Much can be</p><p>learnt from pedological techniques used for studying the</p><p>terrestrial earth and extra-terrestrial planets like Mars.</p><p>In the 1930s, Hans Jenny related soil data from differ-</p><p>ent regions and how they were affected by environmental</p><p>factors (e.g. Jenny, 1931). He developed several relation-</p><p>ships that formed the groundwork for his quantitative fac-</p><p>tors of soil formation based on the foundational work by</p><p>Vasily Dokuchaev. In the 1980s, the term pedotransfer</p><p>function (PTF) was coined by Johan Bouma (1989). Since</p><p>then, PTFs have been applied to estimate soil properties</p><p>that are difficult to determine, and they have been used in</p><p>areas with extensive soil databases particularly for estimat-</p><p>ing soil physical functions such as waterholding capacity or</p><p>hydraulic conductivity (Tranter et al., 2006).</p><p>3 | THE PEDOCENE</p><p>In 1966, the effect of humans on soil was summarized as:</p><p>‘The vast activities of man as a soil modifier have not</p><p>been as yet fully incorporated into the body of pedologi-</p><p>cal investigations’ (Yaalon & Yaron, 1966). Orville Bid-</p><p>well and Francis Hole called humans ‘…the soil</p><p>manipulator, a purposeful mammal’ and emphasized</p><p>that humans are factors of soil formation as well factors</p><p>of soil destruction (Bidwell & Hole, 1965). Many soils</p><p>have changed in their chemical, physical or biological</p><p>properties through agricultural activities such as cultiva-</p><p>tion, tillage, weeding, terracing, subsoiling, deep plough-</p><p>ing, manure and fertilizer addition, liming, draining,</p><p>irrigation and impoldering (Bridges & de Bakker, 1997).</p><p>These amendments have mostly been studied in relation</p><p>to their effects on crop productivity (Figure 1).</p><p>Human influence on soils has become prominent in</p><p>Soil Taxonomy and the World Reference Base for Soil</p><p>Resources (WRB). Soil Taxonomy included an anthropic</p><p>and plaggen epipedon at the Seventh Approximation in</p><p>1960 but does not recognize human activities at the high-</p><p>est system level (soil order) (Soil Survey Staff, 1999). It</p><p>now recognizes human altered and human transported</p><p>materials (HAHT soils), and a new soil order has been</p><p>proposed: Artesols. These soils occur in cities, suburbs,</p><p>villages, transportation corridors, mine and spoil areas,</p><p>terraced hillslopes, building pads, airports, levees and</p><p>dams, and other anthropogenic landforms with more</p><p>than 50 cm fill or cut and fill. Such soils are characterized</p><p>by anthropedogenetic processes which artificial condi-</p><p>tions differ from, or significantly modify, the natural pro-</p><p>cesses or factors of soil formation (Howard, 2017).</p><p>Anthrosols and fimic horizons were introduced in the</p><p>1988 revised legend of the FAO-UNESCO soil classifica-</p><p>tion system (FAO-UNESCO, 1988). Technosols were</p><p>introduced in WRB (IUSS Working Group WRB, 2014)</p><p>which are defined as soils subjected to a strong human</p><p>influence and containing significant amounts of artefacts,</p><p>characteristic of the Anthropocene (Huggett, 2021). Sev-</p><p>eral types of Anthrosols are recognized in WRB following</p><p>long-term usage including Hortic (garden soil), Plaggic</p><p>(Plaggen soil), Terric (Earth accumulation), Pretic (Terra</p><p>Pretas), Irragric (Irrigated soils) and Hydragic (Paddy</p><p>soils). Most of these classes do not exist in Soil Taxonomy,</p><p>because they are not known to occur in the USA or have</p><p>a very limited extent (Howard, 2017). The new order of</p><p>Artesols may accommodate the classification of a wider</p><p>range of human affected soils across the globe.</p><p>The term Anthropocene as a new geological epoch</p><p>was coined in the 1980s by Eugene Stoermer and popu-</p><p>larized by the chemist Paul Crutzen. In 2011, the term</p><p>anthropedology was used by Dan Richter (Richter</p><p>et al., 2011), and defined as pedology of the past but pro-</p><p>ceeds from ‘human as outsider’ to ‘human as insider’. In</p><p>his view, the human in pedology must shift from being a</p><p>soil-disturbing to soil-forming agent. Human perturba-</p><p>tions have affected all soils across the globe. Some have</p><p>been degraded by soil erosion, pollution or nutrient</p><p>depletion, whereas others have been made productive by</p><p>organic and inorganic amendments, draining or breaking</p><p>up of restrictive layers. All soils under natural vegetation</p><p>4 of 6 HARTEMINK</p><p>13652389, 2023, 4, D</p><p>ow</p><p>nloaded from</p><p>https://bsssjournals.onlinelibrary.w</p><p>iley.com</p><p>/doi/10.1111/ejss.13399 by U</p><p>niv of Sao Paulo - B</p><p>razil, W</p><p>iley O</p><p>nline L</p><p>ibrary on [09/08/2024]. See the T</p><p>erm</p><p>s and C</p><p>onditions (https://onlinelibrary.w</p><p>iley.com</p><p>/term</p><p>s-and-conditions) on W</p><p>iley O</p><p>nline L</p><p>ibrary for rules of use; O</p><p>A</p><p>articles are governed by the applicable C</p><p>reative C</p><p>om</p><p>m</p><p>ons L</p><p>icense</p><p>have been affected by gradual changes in the climate, or</p><p>by dust additions, flooding or nutrient enrichment. With</p><p>the advances in pedology and its relevance for under-</p><p>standing the earth system and global change, it is postu-</p><p>lated that soil science has now entered the Pedocene—a</p><p>soil epoch that is equivalent to the Anthropocene. The</p><p>Pedocene is characterized by the quantitative under-</p><p>standing and evaluation of the global soil system, and the</p><p>effects of human-induced changes brought to soil.</p><p>AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS</p><p>Alfred E. Hartemink: Conceptualization; writing – original</p><p>draft.</p><p>DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT</p><p>Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets</p><p>were generated or analysed during the current study.</p><p>ORCID</p><p>Alfred E. Hartemink https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5797-</p><p>6798</p><p>REFERENCES</p><p>Anon. (2012). Black glass holds first Mars soil sample on earth. New</p><p>Scientist, 216(2887), 15.</p><p>Banin, A. (1996). 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Data fusion of Vis–NIR and</p><p>PXRF spectra to predict soil physical and chemical properties.</p><p>European Journal of Soil Science, 71(3), 316–333.</p><p>Zhang, Y., & Hartemink, A. E. (2019b). Digital mapping of a soil</p><p>profile. European Journal of Soil Science, 70(1), 27–41.</p><p>How to cite this article: Hartemink, A. E. (2023).</p><p>Into the Pedocene—Pedology of a changing world.</p><p>European Journal of Soil Science, 74(4), e13399.</p><p>https://doi.org/10.1111/ejss.13399</p><p>6 of 6 HARTEMINK</p><p>13652389, 2023, 4, D</p><p>ow</p><p>nloaded from</p><p>https://bsssjournals.onlinelibrary.w</p><p>iley.com</p><p>/doi/10.1111/ejss.13399 by U</p><p>niv of Sao Paulo - B</p><p>razil, W</p><p>iley O</p><p>nline L</p><p>ibrary on [09/08/2024]. See the T</p><p>erm</p><p>s and C</p><p>onditions (https://onlinelibrary.w</p><p>iley.com</p><p>/term</p><p>s-and-conditions) on W</p><p>iley O</p><p>nline L</p><p>ibrary for rules of use; O</p><p>A</p><p>articles are governed by the applicable C</p><p>reative C</p><p>om</p><p>m</p><p>ons L</p><p>icense</p><p>https://doi.org/10.1111/ejss.13399</p><p>Into the Pedocene-Pedology of a changing world</p><p>1 INTRODUCTION</p><p>2 NEW FIELDS</p><p>3 THE PEDOCENE</p><p>AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS</p><p>DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT</p><p>REFERENCES</p>